Geog Notes Sec3 PDF

Geog notes Sec3 Cluster 1 Chapter 1 Relationship between people & nature Local communities & nearby nature areas: - Dependent on each other - Positively and negatively affect each other People are dependent on nature: Nature provides food, air & water Animals help pollinate crops cont...

Geog notes Sec3 Cluster 1 Chapter 1 Relationship between people & nature Local communities & nearby nature areas: - Dependent on each other - Positively and negatively affect each other People are dependent on nature: Nature provides food, air & water Animals help pollinate crops continuous food supply Nature provide space for recreation & leisure activities > allow people to bond > maintain physical & mental well-being Nature are dependent on people: People take care nearby nature, ensure plants & animals thrive People encourage each other sustainable with nature areas, importance of protecting natural environment Positive and negative effects People positively affect nature by: 1. Community activities promote importance of environmental protection People negatively affect nature by: 1. Eroding soil (soil erosion), damaging vegetables 2. Disturbing wildlife 3. Worsening population Nature positively affect people by: 1. Lowering temperatures a. Provides shade, reduces amount of direct sunlight on surface b. Cools surrounding air by evapotranspiration (water from plant loss as vapour thru evaporation) 2. Removing pollutants a. Plants absorb CO2 & other pollutants during photosynthesis b. Small particles caught by leaves washed to ground by rain c. Wetland plants trap suspended materials & absorb excess nutrients in water, improve water quality  3. Providing space for recreation a. Nature areas allow outdoor activities b. Interact w/ nature > health & well being benefits, reduce severity & occurrence of health conditions Nature negatively affect people by: 1. Wildlife may harm people (animals) a. Urbanisation -> natural habitats shrinking, animals wander out b. People spending more time in nature areas c. SG promotes human-wildlife encounters by bringing nature into city People may unintentionally provoke animals, animals confused/fearful > attacks 2. Environmental protection limits development a. People in local communities feel protection of nature neglects their needs E.g, Cross Island MRT supposed to be built around Central Catchment Nature Reserve to protect the rainforest Resdients concerned development damages their property > their homes relocated make way for construction Sense of Place What is Sense of Place? People associate meanings & memories w/ locations Reflects rship people have w/ place Builds our identity, understand each other & others better Highly personal & subjective (diff ppl diff meanings) Sense of belonging > memories > sense of place How is Sense of Place acquired? ★ Derived from our exp w/ natural & built environment ○ Interactions w/ people at these places, form memories ★ Repeated encounters w/ objects & ppl ○ Helps recall characteristics and featurers of place, create memories & meanings ★ Significant events at local landmarks ○ Serve symbolic or historic purpose ○ Landmarks highly visible, easy to rmb E.g, Bukit Timah’s Truss Bridges built as part of railway line Many ppl associate it with SG railway history Ppl take pictures there, create memories > sense of place How is Sense of Place represented? Through diff forms of media by individuals & organisations ○ Reflects ppl ideas, memories & significance of location  Posters, broadcasts or internet ○ E.g, Using hashtags like #sgmemory, can share photos of their memorable experiences of places on social media Relationship between locations in a neighbourhood What are Regions? - Areas w/ similar physical or human characteristics - Environmental characteristics: Nature of built up area - Human characterisitcs: Commercial or residential area - Geographical locations: East or West - Regions are spheres of influence for services, events and objects - Town Councils take care of regions What are Spatial Patterns?  Spatial patterns reflect non-random arrangements; shapes, clusters, geometry ○ Services, events & objects are often found in spatial patterns; non-randomly arranged Bus stops, train stations, childcare centres etc can be found in spatial patterns ○ Spatial patterns can include repeated occurrences at regular intervals Spatial associations Tendency to pair of services, events and objects located near each other ○ Lifts and staircase often located together Suggests connections between the services ○ Lift and staircase to go up and down levels, if lift does not work can take stairs ○ Fitness centres found near HDB blocks, residents can access easily and exercise Part of spatial patterns, used to non-randomly arrange services Organisation of locations in neighbourhoods Spatial scales - Spatial scales refer to scale of which a phenomena takes place - Nested area are smaller areas within large ones - Hierarchy of scales; global > regional > local  Why are spatial scales important..? To allow categorisation and description of locations, like where (data given) in the world or (data given) in Singapore > show different levels of detail Spatial Hierarchies in SG 1. Residential Units ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 2. Precinct – contains 400-800 residential units i. Basic range of facilities ii. Facilities often nearby > service residents everyday needs; enhance convenience ➔ Spread out evenly; meet everyone needs ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 3. Neighbourhood – serves 4000 - 6000 residents i. Made up of a few precincts ii. Wide range of facilities iii. Complementing facilities w/ precinct’s iv. Integrated facilities; many services found together in one place 1. i.e, train station next to bus interchange, which oso hv clinic and childcare centre ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ 4. Town – contains a few neighbourhoods i. Wide range of facilities & features > enhance resident convenience & meet daily needs Urban Planning Urban planning/Town Planning ➔ Provides for people and nature ➔ Enhances synergies and connections between facilities and housing etc ◆ E.g., Associating different services with each other to enhance interactions between services ◆ i.e. childcares near housing good for families, 1. Takes care of kids 2. Can provide a job opportunity for ppl Senoko Waste-to-Energy Plant 1. Educational purpose, shows students green energy source, how waste energy turn into electricity 2. Powers homes 3. Creates job oppurtunities 4. Save environment, manage pollution Resevoirs in SG Resevoirs are often located near the sea; coastal areas Prevent flooding Protects against rising sea levels Chapter 2 Sustainability - Economic sustainability - long-term economic growth w/out negatively impacting social, environmental, & cultural aspects in community - Social sustainability - inclusive societies where residents hv a voice - Environmental sustainability - manage nature resources; ecological balance, support needs of future gen Sustainable development - Meets the needs of present population thru achieving high living standards - Ensure future gen meet their own needs - Varies from diff places and times - Countries in poverty might emphasise on economic sustainability Economic Sustainability Achieved by ensuring local neighborhood has high enough population density ○ Helps to support local businesses Businesses sustain themselves; high pop density → more customer → sufficient demand ○ Transport and infrastructure cost low; buildings close to each other → residents dunneed travel far Social Sustainability Achieved by ensuring residents feel included & sense of shared identity ○ Shared community spaces → promote regular social interactions ○ Population size kept small → facilitate RSI  Builds resilience & positive relationships betw residents ○ Help resolve each other’s issues, good terms with one another Regular social activities organised locally ○ Encourage resident to voice opinions & participate in decisions Environmental Sustainability Achieved by ensuring there is: ○ Ample protection for nature Wildlife can thrive in urban spaces → foster human-wildlife coexistence Protecting existing native habitats & ecosystems Providing adequate food & shelter for wide range of wildlife → maximise biodiversity in urban spaces ○ Waste minimization & recycling Recycling bins conveniently found arnd estates → Encourage residents to recycle Waste recycling activities organised by town council High population density → waste collected in efficient manner ○ Energy & water efficient designs Eco-friendly buildings & landscapes minimise use fo resources Installation of smart technology/eco-friendly features E.g, Green walls help reduce the amount of direct sunlight on buildings, while also cooling surroundings w/ evapo-transpiration (energy-efficient) E.g, faucet aerators reduce amount of water coming out tap, whilst being as effective (water- efficient) Ecosystems in Urban Neighborhoods - Ecosystems are where living communities & non-living environments interact w/ each other - Every part is interdependent on each other Ecosystem services - Refers to the benefits brought by nature to ppl - Produced by living communities & non-living environment Provisioning services Tangible resources ppl get from ecosystems, e.g, water & food Food vv important provided by nature ○ Obtained thru means like fishing & farming Regulating services Benefits obtained frm regulating ecosystem processes ○ Processes like climate regulation, flood regulation ○ Work tgt ensure ecosystems functional & sustainable Includes air & water quality control ○ E.g, Trees in parks lower surrounding temp by providing shade & evapotranspiration ○ Vegetation in parks reduce surface runoff by holding soil tgt, prevent soil erosion ○ All plants improve air quality by removing pollutants Cultural services Intangible benefits from ecosystems, e,g, aesthetics & recreational activities Green spaces provide aesthetic appreciate & relieves stress ○ → improve ppl physical & mental well-being Supporting services Services necessary for/enable other services to function E.g, Soil formation ○ → Essential for ecosystems; provides habitat for organisms, contributes to biodiversity, acts as water filter (regulate) → Ensures agriculture can take place → Food can be obtained (provision) Hazards in urban neighbourhooods What are Hazards? A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause: Loss of life Health impacts Property Damage Social & economic problems Classified natural or man made Fire Hazards - Occurs in residential & commercial areas - Causes may include unattended cooking & faulty electrical wiring Health Impacts - Burn injuries, may lead to disabilties or death - Carbon dioxide & monoxide release by fire - Carbon monoxide poisoning - → cause headache, dizziness & confusion, lead to loss of consciousness or death - Smoke inhalation; → breathing difficulties & suffocation Property Damage - Fires destroy commercial & residential properties - → Economic losses; the goods inside oso destroyed - Need more money to repair damaged properties Air Pollution - Occur due to improper dispersal/ presence of pollutants in air - Interfere with human health, harms the environment Health Impacts Respiratory infections, heart diseases Higher risk of asthma ○ Nitrogen dioxide produced from vehicles Lung function decline in older adults ○ PM2.5 particulate matter like soot, smoke, dust & liquid droplets ○ →enters bloodstream and linger in lungs Traffic Hazards - Often due to irresponsible drivers, put themself & other road users at risk - Commonly caused by - Speeding - Drink-driving - Red light running Health Impacts Serious injuries from traffic accidents ○ Lead to disabilities or loss of life (similar to fire) Sustainable urban neighbourhoods - Sustainable urban neighbourhoods can be defined through 3 ways - Environmental Stewardship - Disaster Risk Management - Community Resilience Environmental Stewardship Refers to actions taken by individuals/groups to care for/responsibly use the environment Such actions would be: Conserve natural resources Preserve natural environment Repair negative impacts caused by humans  → Helps to build sustainable urban neighborhoods Achieved through promoting volunteerism & partnering w/ diff orgs ○ Volunteerism helps residents share knowledge to others ○ → Increase awareness of responsible use & actions to take Partnership w/ orgs, orgs hv access to resources & expertise ○ Effectively builds up environmental stewardship Disaster Risk - DR is risk of injuries, property damage & death from disasters - Product of 3 factors - Nature of hazard - Vulnerability (social, economic, environmental factors) - Exposure (hazard prone areas) Disaster Risk Management Refers to plans & actions implemented to prevent & reduce DR Strengthens community resilience Often aims to reduce exposure & vulnerability to hazards Such strategies include: ○ Improve residents’ emergency preparedness to respond to hazards ○ Implementation of monitoring & warning systems → E.g, Public Warning System is a network of sirens placed throughout city. Warns public of imminent threats Community Resilience Refers to community able to resist, adapt & recover from effects of disaster Developed through ○ Strengthening r/ships bet. residents & raising awareness of potential hazards Encouraged to know each other; depend on each other during an emergency Disaster risk management plans only effective if got widespread support & participation ○ Residents organise & equip themselves with resources to resist, adapt & recover Inclusive planning process for residents Active participation in projects that minimize potential hazards in neighborhood (build smth) ○ → better understand risks & adaptation to communicate w/ planners & gov. Cluster 2 Tourism Tourists - Make trips to places outside their usual environment for leisure or personal purpose  - Domestic tourists travel within their own country - International tourists travel abroad to a foreign country - Backpackers - travel light, often on tight budget - Business Tourists - travel for business purposes. - Pilgrims - travel to sacred sites, ‘spiritually grow’ as a person; participates in religious rites Tourism System - 3 interconnected components Tourist Generating Region ○ Region where tourists come from ○ People & businesses offer tourism products & experiences (accommodation, transportation, etc) Tourist Destination Region ○ Region which attracts tourists; ○ Attractions, amenities & facilities cater to tourists needs ○ Experiences the consequences of tourism development Transit route ○ Region or route tourist travel to reach their destination. ○ Links TGD & TDR,  ○ Include stopover points, used for convenience or bcos got attractions Reasons of growth of tourism Motivation to travel Need for relaxation - Increased work stress & hectic lifestyle →ppl want travel more to relieve stress - Many see travel as way to rejuvenate and refresh themselves - Go to tourist destinations & engage in tourist activities to relax - E.g, seek nature to escape urban environment, rest, enjoy scenic views - For e.g, survey found that one of the main reason British tourists visited Phuket was to rest and relax Need for personal growth & self-fulfilment - More people view travel as way for self-growth & achieve fulfill potential - Travelling allows them to learn new things/improve knowledge & skills, develop themselves - Participate in challenging/adventurous activities, fulfill potential - → stretched physically & emotionally, achieve personal growth - For e.g, many cooking schools popping up in Bali to cater to tourist that wan learn abt Balinese cuisine - No. of tourist climbing Mount Everest increase over the years, more ppl motivated to challenge themselve to fulfil potential  Need to discover unique travel experiences - Travel to gain unique travel experiences to satisfy curiosity abt world - Get to explore lesser known environments & cultures - E.g, participate in special/uncommon tourist activities, like trekking on side of volcano - Social media raise interest in unique destinations, attract younger tourists - Vast transport networks make these unique tourist destinations accessible - For e.g, Tourism in Antarctica increased significantly in last 2 decades; want to explore uninhabited regions Ability to travel Increase in disposable income - Disposable income refers to money ppl have left aft covering basic needs (food, water, healthcare) - Aft ww2, economic development lead to increase in disposable income in NA, Western Eur., Japan - → greater spending on travel, fuel tourism growth - In rapidly developing countries, fast growing middle class w/ increased disposable income cause large demand for tourism - For e.g, GDP in China quadrupled as international tourism grew from 9mil departures in 1999 to 154mil departures in 2019 Increase in leisure time - Refers to time where free of work & responsibilities - Increased paid leaves, more public hols, shorter working weeks - → give people more time to travel; paid leaves help workers finance their travel  - E.g, Chinese government encourage employees to give workers half day paid leave on Fridays during summer months in 2015, help boost domestic tourism Business innovations in tourism industry - Business innovations that provide value-for-money experiences /more affordable travel methods - → Ability to travel ⬆, demand for travel ⬆ - Tour operators tdy increasingly replaced by websites and apps; provide more personalised value-for-money experiences - For e.g, Websites like Trivago & Expedia provide search engine for tourists to compare trips and reviews, book trips, and offer promotional prices for transport and accommodation Lower transport costs - International tourism rely heavily on air transport; which becoming increasingly affordable 🤮 - Over the years, air fares significantly dropped, esp w/ introduction of budget airlines (no movies ) - Budget airlines offer significantly lower prices, lowering transport costs esp for international travel/tourism - For e.g, AirAsia become vv popular due to significantly lower prices, but only provide the basic airfare Lower accommodation costs - Over the years, variety of accommodation types increased - Hotels, AirBnB, etc - Business innovations such as AirBnB enable property owners to rent out to tourists at diff prices, some at vv cheap prices - → Travel becomes more affordable, ability to travel ⬆  - For e.g, AirBnB connects ppl who want rent out their homes to tourists; More than 2mil ppl stay in AirBnB everyday in 2019 Mobility to travel Expansion of public transport services & infrastructure - More countries constructing transport infrastructure like roads, railways, & airports recently - Connectivity within country & between countries ⬆ - E.g, Changi Airport T4 enable more flights to SG, and to other countries, improve connectivity - Expansion of public transport network, more bus & train lines - Tourists more convenient, since tourists normally taker public transport oso; → tourism growth - E.g, Gardens by the Bay accessible by MRT, on newly built Thomson East Coast line (TEL) & next to Bayfront MRT Introduction of new modes of travel - Transport rapidly developing; → new modes of travel - Faster travel for tourists via land, sea or air - E.g, 1965, conventional train take 6hr 40min to go from Tokyo to Osaka. Invention of bullet train sped up this trip to 3h 10min; lead to greatly increased tourism in cities with bullet train network - Commercial air travel greatly boosted tourism - Technological developments enabled production of aircraft that are faster, travel further and use less fuel - → Reduced travel time - → Increased convenience for long distance travel - → Lower travelling costs (need buy/produce less fuel)  Increased private car ownership - Allows families to travel comfortably & conveniently in own vehicles - Allow for more freedom in number of destinations can visit & time spent at destination - Esp boosted domestic tourism - E.g, In 1950s, private car ownership in US increase significantly, result in increase in domestic tourism. As a result, motel businesses oso expanded TDR development over time - Over time, key features & no. of tourists evolve - Investor, tourists & tour operator go new discovered TD → TD popularity⬆ - Over time, lose popularity, start to decline Exploration - Usually has few tourist amenities Involvement - Increase awareness of destination - More popular  - More tourists then would contribute to local economy - More amenities & facilities built for tourists - Usually built & maintained by gov. Development - Rapid increase in tourist arrivals - Provide more job opportunities in tourism sector; - Contributes significantly to local economy - Tourist facilities, infrastructure, attractions will develop a lot faster - Heavy advertising of destinations & attractions - Increase in goods & services that cater to tourists needs - → e.g, Hotels - Now recognised as tourist destination Consolidation - Growth in tourist arrivals slow down - Tourism industry dominating local economy - Employs significant amount of workers & contributes significantly to local economy - Development of attractions & facilities slows down - Owned by large multinational companies Stagnation - Tourist numbers peaked; start to decline - Destination reached or exceeded carrying capacity - Might make destination less attractive - E.g, high no. of tourist result in greater littering - → destination dirty, result in pollution  - Tourist facilities & attractions decline; run down - Tourist lose interest, get tired of location - Tourists contribution to local economy stagnate Decline Tourist arrivals decline significantly ○ They start finding other new places Tourist contributions then decline significantly Business reliant on tourists decline; close down ○ Affect economy & people livelihood Less money available to maintain/improve facilities ○ Butterfly effect into fewer tourists Rejuvenation Tourists arrivals increase again ○ Investments & funding develop new attractions and facilities ○ Re-branding of destination → Destination becomes attractive again Tourist contribution to local economy increase again More advertisement for revamped destination Personality of Tourists - Dependable Stakeholders 1. Government - Establish policies and create plans - Enforce regulations Establish policies and create plans - Setting up an overall framework/planning - Require other stakeholders to follow in line with the framework - Sentosa has various strategies to reduce water consumption; one of government plans - Sentosa developments have to align w/ governments framework (sustainable tourism) Enforce regulations - Regulate the type of tourism activities - Regulate the number of tourists entering the country - E.g, Bhutan, tourists can only enter the country by organising trip with licensed tour operator; regulated paths and spendings - Minimise negative impacts of tourism - Prevent mass tourism - Enable sustainable tourism How effective would Gov. policies and regulations be? - Poor enforcement - Inactive/lazy enforcement lead to ineffective regulations - Governments that lack political influence or resources/face corruption, unable to ensure regulations adhered to - Prioritising economic development>> - Neglect environmental & social sustainability - Hindering sustainable tourism development - E.g, Mt Everest receives hundreds of tourists every year to climb, Nepali do not impose tight regulations so as to not lose tourists (&→) tourism revenue, leads to excessive waste disposal on the mountain (environmental sustainability ⬇) International organisations - Help to coordinate efforts and initiative across the country - Help influence sustainable tourism development They are done through 1. Offering consultancy to countries on how sustainable tourism development can be achieved. 2. Providing financial assistance to different stakeholders. 3. Raising public awareness on how they can contribute to sustainable tourism development. International Government Organisations - Provide tourism consultancy services and financial assistance to promote sustainable tourism - Important in promoting sustainable tourism. Have knowledge, financial & technical expertise to provide assistance and facilitate communication between stakeholders. Cluster 3 Climate What is Climate? Climate refers to the average state of atmosphere of a specific place over a long period of time, typically >=25 years Misconception: Weather and climate are the same X Weather is the state of the atmosphere of specific place & time (Climate is the average of a long period of time, weather is just the present state of the short period) Factors affecting atmospheric conditions Temperature Cloud cover Precipitation Wind speed Wind direction Climographs Mean Annual Temp. – total temp/12 Temp Degree >30 Very High 20-30 High 10-20 Moderate 0-10 Low *Annual Temp. Range – Highest temp. - Lowest temp. Temp Degree >30 Very High 15-30 High 5-15 Moderate 1500 Very High 1000-1500 High 500-1000 Moderate 2000mm - Even distribution of precipitation Tropical Monsoon Climate - High mean annual temp all year round of 25C - Small annual temp range of 3-4C - High annual mean precipitation of about 1500mm  - Distinct wet & dry seasons; uneven distribution of precipiation Cool Temperature Climate - 4 distinct seasons, due to tilt of the Earth and revolution of Sun - Warm winters & cool summers - Large annual temp range of 15C - Evenly distributed precipitation Climactic Hazards - Climate change affecting weather patterns, turning predictable into unpredictable - As a result of ⬆average global temp, there is ⬆rate of evaporation, resulting in ⬆amount of water vapor & latent heat in the atmosphere - → As such, extreme weather events occur more frequently and/or with greater severity Variations of air temperature Over each day As Earth rotates, the side of the Earth facing the sun experiences day & receives solar radiation, hence that side have higher air temp (vice versa) Midday - The hottest part of the day - Sun is directly overhead the Earth - Radiation is thus spread over a smaller area - →Rays are more cocentrated, thus temp higher in the day Before & After Midday  - Sun isnt directly overhead the Earth - Radiation - Midday - Hottest part of the day - Sun is directly overhead Earth surface - Solar radiation spread over small area - → Solar rays are more concentrated, thus temp ⬆ Before & After Midday (morning & afternoon/evening) - Sun isnt directly overhead Earth surface - Solar radiation spread over larger area - → Less concentrated solar rays, not as hot as midday Over a year - As earth is titled (23.5°), different amount of solar radiation is received at different places across a yr (seasons) March¯\_o_/¯ l /\ - Sun directly above equator - High solar angle at Eqtor (high concentration small area) - Neither hemisphere leaning toward the sun; both hem. receive same amount of solar insolation June - Sun between Tropic of Cancer & Eqtor - High solar angle betw ⬆(high concentration small area) - NH receives higher radiation (summer), SH receives less (winter) September - Sun directly above Eqtor  - High solar angle at Eqtor (high concentration small area) - Neither hemsph. leaning toward the sun; both hems. receive same amount of solar radiation December - Sun between Tropic of Capricorn & Equator - High solar angle betw ⬆ (high concentration small area) - NH receives lower radiation (winter), SH receives more (summer) Air temp vary across places 1. Latitude (y-axis) a. Latitude ⬇, air temp ⬆ b. As the latitude gets further away from the Eqtor (⟂ solar angle), the solar angle gets bigger i. → Radiation is then spread over a larger area; lower concentration 2. Altitude (height above sea level) a. As altitude ⬆, air density ⬇ i. → Gravity pulls most of the molecules to the ground, less molecules on top 1. Less molecules trap heat, hence cooler b. As altitude ⬆, less heat transferred from the Earth’s surface (further) i. → air temp ⬇