Environmental Science- MIDTERMS.pdf

Environmental Science Ms. Mildred Tabaosares UNIT 1 How to lessen the cause of the CHAPTER 1 - ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, problem? ECOLOGY, AND THE SYSTEMS APPROAC...

Environmental Science Ms. Mildred Tabaosares UNIT 1 How to lessen the cause of the CHAPTER 1 - ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, problem? ECOLOGY, AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH Environmental Science – problem in the Thus, it is a challenge for environmental environment made by human science students, practitioners and scientist to examine various knowledge, perspectives, Ecology– study of environmental problems. technologies and policies in deciding the (Study of the interactions of the organisms solutions to environmental problems within the environment.) ES is a body of knowledge, which requires a System Approach – identifying the root holistic and systematic. cause of the problem As such, this understanding anchors on The concept of Environmental Science different disciplines from the natural Discipline (physical, chemical and biological sciences) o Environmental Science as a and social sciences. discipline understands the Consequently, Environmental Science interactions of the life- support anchors form the various fields of study: system and the human sphere. Students in the Environmental Science learn how humans interact with the environment, particularly on issues and concerns with the aim reducing stress and degradation of our life-support system – our environment. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 1  TRANS: and contributed to the development of Students in the Environmental Science are Environmental Ethics as a discipline in the constantly challenged and interested in the 1970s. issues and problems confronting our The era influenced the birth of environment. environmentalism worldwide and advocated for actions to address environmental issues. Subjects in the Environmental Science always emphasize on what causes these IMPLICATIONS: problems and how to respond to it applying Environmental Ethics highlights the the Environmental Science discipline. importance of moral considerations in human interactions with the environment. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS It encourages the development of policies and actions that reflect ethical considerations DEFINITION AND SCOPE: towards environmental stewardship. Environmental Ethics deals with the morality and values of humans towards the environment, encompassing its physical and KEY POINTS SUMMARY: biological components. 1. Environmental Ethics is the philosophy of human values and actions towards the It is a philosophy that includes human views, environment. values, attitudes, actions, and policies towards the environment. 2. It addresses how humans interact with non- human environmental components based on CORE CONCEPTS: moral and social considerations. Environmental Ethics examines how humans view and interact with non-human 3. Influential works like Silent Spring, The components of the environment (air, water, Population Bomb, and The Limits to Growth soil, land, and organisms). spurred the growth of Environmental Ethics and environmentalism. It reflects how humanity perceives and addresses environmental problems, focusing 4. Environmental Ethics advocates for a on what is morally right and socially fundamental change in human values and acceptable. goals to effectively respond to environmental crises. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT: 1963: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring drew global attention to the impacts of pesticides ENVIROMENTALISM on the food web, highlighting environmental and human health damages. Environmentalism is about campaigning and advocating for the environment, 1968: Ehrlich and Ehrlich's The Population particularly in taking care of our support Bomb discussed the potential catastrophic system. effects of overpopulation. 1972: The Limits to Growth by Meadows et Peter Kalmus, a NASA climate scientist was al. emphasized the need for a "basic change arrested for leading a protest against Chase of values and goals" to address Bank and fossil fuels. Kalmus is a reminder environmental crises. that there are so many ways to stand up. SIGNIFICANCE AND INFLUENCE: These publications significantly raised awareness about environmental problems LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 2  TRANS: THE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE APPROACH: Definition: Blending and transcending INTERDISCIPLINARITY, MULTI-DISCIPLINARITY disciplinary boundaries. AND TRANS-DISCIPLINARITY Approach: Team members are open to learning from other disciplines, integrating Overview: perspectives. Integration: Combines knowledge from Goal: Achieve a holistic and systemic biology, chemistry, earth science, social understanding of a problem. sciences, and humanities. Outcome: New ways of learning and Approach: Merges concepts, theories, problem-solving beyond traditional principles, and applications from various disciplinary limits. fields. Goals: Scientific Understanding: Grasping environmental processes and phenomena. Skillful Response: Developing the art or skill to address environmental issues. Methods: Adoption: Utilizes concepts, theories, techniques, methods, approaches, and technologies from other disciplines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGY Environment here refers to all the physical factors (temperature, solar radiation, INTERDISCIPLINARITY: moisture, soil, nutrients and others) and Definition: Integrating contributions from biological conditions that affect the growth various sciences. and development of an organism. Approach: Team members from different disciplines collaborate. The environment is the life-support system of Goal: Each member's perspective interacts all organisms including man. with others to form a holistic understanding. Outcome: Collaboration on the same All materials and energy required to sustain problem formulation and development of a life are taken from it. unified plan. Components of the environment such as MULTIDISCIPLINARITY: physical (air, water, soil) and biological Definition: Contributions from various (organisms, humans) constantly interact disciplines without integration. resulting to a relationship. Approach: Members contribute ideas or actions according to their discipline Our understanding and actions to independently. environmental problems are rooted into how we perceive our environment and what role Outcome: Lack of clear interaction between does humanity take in the interactions. disciplines. Relationship includes interactions with the TRANSDISCIPLINARITY: physical world and with members of other species and the same species. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 3  TRANS: o Interdependence: Humans are not PERSPECTIVES ON THE ENVIRONMENT dominant but interdependent with other life forms. Influential Figures: St. Francis of Assisi is ANTHROPOCENTRISM: often associated with biocentrism, linked with Definition: Human-centered perspective Environmental Ethics. viewing the environment as a means to benefit humanity. Core Beliefs: o Humans at the Center: Humanity is placed at the forefront of development. o Utilitarian View: Non-human components are seen as tools to satisfy human needs and wants. Examples: Development projects prioritize human interests, such as infrastructure, industries, and tourism. Variation: Some advocate for human responsibility in nurturing the environment. Aristotle, himself claimed that “nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man” ECOCENTRISM: Definition: Environment-centered view emphasizing the total value of nature, including both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Core Beliefs: o Total Nature Value: Emphasis on interconnectedness of all environmental components. o Beyond Human and Life: Equal consideration for both living and non- living aspects of nature. BIOCENTRISM: Definition: Life-centered perspective valuing biological components (flora and fauna) equally with humans. Core Beliefs: o Equal Importance: Respect and ethical considerations extended to all living things. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 4  TRANS: These perspectives offer varied approaches to society with the natural world (Florece et al., understanding humanity's relationship with the n.d.). environment, ranging from human-centric views to broader considerations of life and nature's o It is a composite science that integrates knowledge from natural intrinsic value. sciences and social sciences, such as economics, political science, and sociology. CENTRAL ROLE OF ECOLOGY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: Ecology forms the central core of environmental science, treating humans not only as biological organisms but also as social entities. APPLICATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES: Environmental science applies ecological principles to study the effects of human activities on the environment. The application of ecological thought to societal problems is a key direction in modern ecology. ECOLOGY AS A CENTRAL CORE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE o It raises awareness about issues such as pollution, overpopulation, DEFINITION environmental degradation, AND ORIGIN: biodiversity loss, global warming, and Ecology is the science that studies the ozone depletion. relationships of organisms with their environment and with one another (Odum, EXAMPLES OF 1971). ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS: o The term "oekologie" was coined in 1. Changing Carbon Dioxide Levels: 1866 by German biologist Ernst o How changes in atmospheric carbon Haeckel, derived from the Greek dioxide affect species composition of words "oikos" (household) and vegetation, directly or through global "logos" (study). Thus, "ecology" warming. means the "study of the household [of nature]." o The impact on animal populations dependent on vegetation, and the o Ecology focuses on living organisms subsequent effects on ecosystems and draws knowledge from other and human lives. natural sciences like chemistry, physics, geology, soil science, and 2. Informed Decision-Making: meteorology. o Understanding ecological concepts and principles is essential to ENVIRONMENTAL appreciate and make informed SCIENCE: decisions on politicized Environmental Science is a discipline that environmental issues like aims to understand and explain deforestation, biodiversity loss, clean environmental issues and seeks solutions to air and water, and climate change. problems caused by the interaction of human LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 5  TRANS: In summary, a solid grounding in ecological concepts and principles is crucial for comprehending and addressing complex environmental issues. This foundation helps in formulating effective solutions and informed opinions on critical environmental challenges. CASE STUDY ON THE CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Solid and liquid wastes Eutrophication Fish kill TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS IN ES Flooding and urban flooding Landslide and erosion ENVIRONMENTAL Food scarcity VALUATION STUDY NOTES Diseases: dengue, diarrhea, malaria, etc. DEFINITION Deforestation and forest conversion Environmental Valuation is a technique that assigns monetary value to Pest infestation environmental resources that do not have a Drought and desertification corresponding price in the market. These Urban heat resources can be either goods (products) or Climate change that results to other issues services (functions). such as flooding and sea level rise EXAMPLES Loss of biodiversity 1. Forest Ecosystem: COVID-19 pandemic o Goods: Provides food and water. Ozone layer depletion o Services: Water storage. Plastic pollution Others…. 2. Mango Tree: o Goods: Provides fruit, which has a clear price in the market. o Services: ▪ Infiltration to recharge groundwater. ▪ Carbon sequestration to reduce greenhouse gases and mitigate global warming. ▪ Leaves involved in photosynthesis, which is essential for food production in plants. IMPORTANCE OF VALUATION: The environment provides ecosystem services, which are benefits that humanity derives from the environment. These services are categorized into four types: 1. Provisioning Services: Products obtained from ecosystems, like food and water. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 6  TRANS: 2. Regulating Services: Benefits decision-making processes, promoting sustainable obtained from the regulation of environmental management and enhancing human ecosystem processes, like climate well-being. regulation and water purification. 3. Supporting Services: Necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, like soil formation and nutrient cycling. 4. Cultural/Spiritual Services: Non- material benefits people obtain from ecosystems, like recreational and spiritual benefits. Environmental valuation is crucial as it highlights the economic significance of ecosystem services, ensuring they are considered in decision-making TOOLS OF processes and promoting sustainable environmental ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION management. MARKET-BASED AND NON-MARKET-BASED APPROACHES: Environmental valuation tools can be categorized into: o Market-Based Approach: Used for environmental resources that have an equivalent monetary price in the market. o Non-Market-Based Approach: Used for resources without a direct market price. NON-MARKET- BASED APPROACHES: Environmental Impacts: Stated Preference: Involves directly asking Environmental valuation also encompasses people their willingness to pay for a specific valuing the environmental impacts of environmental good or service. projects or activities. o Example: Surveys where individuals o Example: Clearing a forest for road state how much they would pay for construction has significant impacts, cleaner air or water. including: ▪ Loss of biodiversity (plants Revealed Preference: Involves inferring and animals). the value of an environmental good or ▪ Loss of the services provided service from observed behaviors and by biodiversity, which impacts choices. human well-being. o Example: Analyzing the difference in Environmental valuation is crucial as it highlights the property values in areas with varying economic significance of both ecosystem services air quality to determine the value and the environmental impacts of human activities. people place on clean air. This ensures these factors are considered in LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 7  TRANS: ECONOMIC Has the study been repeated VALUATION: successfully? Economic valuation is a method of Beware of anecdotal information assigning a market price to environmental resources, thereby quantifying their value in economic terms. D. Question the source. o It helps in making informed Does the source have an instrument decisions by highlighting the in the outcome of the issue? economic significance of Is the source biased? environmental goods and services. Do underlying assumptions affect the viewpoint of the source? THE ROLE OF CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN RESOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES E. Question the conclusions. Instead Of linear thinking, critical thinking Do the facts support the conclusion? skills should be enhanced to rationally Correlation does not necessarily analyze environmental issues and problems mean causation. to be able to arrive at an informed decision. Critical thinking involves the capacity of a F. Tolerate uncertainty. person to distinguish between beliefs (what Hard and fast answers are not always we think is true) and knowledge (facts possible. supported by accurate observation and valid Learn to be comfortable with not experimentation). knowing. THE STEPS ESSENTIAL FOR CRITICAL G. Examine the big picture. THINKING ARE AS FOLLOWS (CHIRAS, 1994 Study the whole system. AS CITED IN GUZMAN & GUZMAN, 2000): Look for hidden causes and effects. A. Gather all information. Avoid simplistic thinking. Dig deeper. Avoid dualistic thinking Learn all you can before you decide. Don’t mistake ignorance for perspective. Notes B. Understand all terms. Define all terms you use. DDT stands for Be sure you understand terms and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. It is a non- concepts others use. biodegradable pollutant which was introduced as an insecticide. It became C. Question how information/facts were famous for its hazardous environmental derived. impacts. Were they derived from scientific studies? Were the studies well-conceived and carried out? Were there an adequate number of subjects? Was there a control and an experimental group? LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 8  TRANS: o Produce most of the organic nutrients CHAPTER 2: Examples: for the biosphere. ECOSYSTEM ECOSYSTEM → Refers to the interacting group of natural elements in the organisms in a given environment. Algae of all types Green plants such as → It is a unit of interrelationship between and contain chlorophyll and trees are the dominant among living things and nonliving things. carry on photosynthesis photosynthesizers on in freshwater and land → It is processes both living (biotic) and marine habitats. nonliving (abiotic) components of the environment. Chemosynthetic Bacteria: o Obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic → Living things respond and adapt to the non- compounds like ammonia, nitrites, living and their environment to maintain their and sulfides. homeostasis or their steady state condition. o Use this energy to synthesize organic A coral reef is a compounds. marine ecosystem illustrating the biotic o Found in environments like caves and abiotic and hydrothermal vents along deep- components. sea ocean ridges. Example: Tube worms get their BIOTIC COMPONENTS energy from OF AN ECOSYSTEM chemosynthetic → The biotic components include all the living bacteria. Tube worms things present in the ecosystem. have no mouth, eyes, or stomach. Their survival depends on a symbiotic relationship with the billions of bacteria that live inside them. These bacteria convert the chemicals that shoot out the hydrothermal vents into food for the worm. HETEROTROPHS (CONSUMERS) AUTOTROPHS (PRODUCERS) Definition: Organisms that need a Definition: Organisms that require only preformed source of organic nutrients. inorganic nutrients and an external energy source to produce organic nutrients for their Table 1. Types of Consumers own use and indirectly for all other members Type Description Examples of the ecosystem. Herbivores Graze directly on Cows, Deer plants or algae. Photosynthetic Organisms: LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 9  TRANS: carbohydrates from atmospheric carbon Carnivores Feed on other Lions, dioxide and water. animals. Hawks → In aquatic environments, the availability of Omnivores Feed on both plants Bears, sunlight has a significant effect on the growth and animals. Humans and distribution of algae. Scavengers Feed on dead Vultures, → Because water itself and microorganisms in remains of Hyenas it absorb light and keep it penetrating very animals/plants. far, most photosynthesis occurs near the surface of the water. Detritus Feeders: PHOTOPERIODISM o Definition: Organisms that feed on → The response of plants to day and night is organic remains in the final stage of known as photoperiodism. decomposition (detritus). Examples: ORGANIZED INTO 3 CATEGORIES: Long day plants plants that begin the flowering process before June 12 Marine Fan Worms Earthworms Short day plants begin the flowering Take detritus from the Feed on detritus in the process after water. soil. December 21 DECOMPOSERS Poinsettia Definition: Organisms that use their digestive secretions to chemically break Day neutral plants appear to be in different down dead organic matter, including animal cycles of light and wastes, in the external environment. darkness, they may flower continuously or Role: respond to other o Produce detritus. stimuli. o Without decomposers, plants would Sunflower be completely dependent on physical processes, such as the release of minerals from rocks, to supply them Table 2. Different activity patterns of animals based with inorganic nutrients. on their activity times: Activity Description ABIOTIC COMPONENTS Pattern OF AN ECOSYSTEM Crepuscular Active during twilight hours, at dawn and dusk. Derived from the SUNLIGHT Latin word "twilight." → It is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. → It is the energy that is used by green plants during the process of photosynthesis by which plants gather energy to make Cat LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 10  TRANS: Nocturnal Active only at night. Typically ROLE IN ENVIRONMENTAL have keen eyesight and excellent PROCESSES hearing to navigate in low-light Weathering: Water acts as the primary conditions. agent for both chemical and mechanical weathering, breaking down rocks into loose fragments and soil. o Chemical Weathering: Water reacts with minerals in rocks, causing them to dissolve or form new minerals. owl o Mechanical Weathering: Water Diurnal Active during the day. Most contributes to physical breakdown activity occurs when there is through processes such as freeze- daylight available for foraging, thaw cycles. hunting, or other behaviors. Table 3. Plant groups according to their water requirements: Plant Group Description Hydrophytes Water-loving plants that actually Dog live in water. WATER: THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT AND Mesophytes Plants that need a moderate BASIS OF LIFE amount of water. → It is the universal solvent and the basis of all life on our planet Epiphytes Plants that get their water from the air. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER Universal Solvent: Water's unique chemical properties allow it to dissolve more substances than any other liquid, making it essential for biological processes. Orchid Physical Properties: It is an odorless and Xerophytes Plants that grow under dry tasteless substance that covers more than conditions. three-quarters (3/4) of the Earth's surface. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ON EARTH Oceans: 97% of Earth's water is found in the Cacti oceans, making it saline and not directly usable for drinking or agriculture without Halophytes Saltwater-loving plants that can desalination. live in salty water. Freshwater: Only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater. o Solid Form: 2% of this freshwater is Mangrove locked in glaciers and ice caps. This table categorizes plants based on their water requirements, o Usable Water: A mere 1% of highlighting the diverse adaptations plants have evolved to survive in different environments. freshwater is accessible and usable for humans and animals, found in TEMPERATURE: A CRITICAL ABIOTIC rivers, lakes, and underground COMPONENT aquifers. → Temperature plays a crucial role in the functioning of ecosystems, influencing the LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 11  TRANS: behavior, physiology, and survival of Thermoreceptors in Skin: Detect the organisms. external environment's temperature and relay this information to the hypothalamus, which then transmits nerve impulses for BASIC CONCEPTS OF corrective mechanisms. TEMPERATURE Definition: Temperature is a measure of the CORRECTIVE MECHANISMS IN hotness or coldness of a body, substance, or TEMPERATURE CONTROL the environment. Increased Sweating: Aimed at reducing the temperature of the organism. Scales: Temperature is measured using two primary scales: Vasodilation: Blood vessels close to the o Celsius (°C) skin surface dilate, increasing surface area o Fahrenheit (°F) for heat loss to the external environment. Measurement Tool: Thermometers are Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels constrict used to measure temperature. to minimize heat loss when temperatures drop. TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ANIMALS Type Definition Examples Poikilotherms Animals whose Reptiles, internal amphibians, temperature and fish. EFFECT OF varies with the TEMPERATURE ON PLANTS ambient Thermoperiod: Refers to the daily environmental temperature change. temperature. o Plants produce maximum growth when exposed to a day temperature Homeotherms Animals that Mammals that is 10 to 15 °F higher than the maintain a and birds. night temperature. roughly constant internal body o This allows plants to photosynthesize temperature, and respire during optimum daytime regardless of the temperatures and reduce respiration ambient during cooler nights. temperature. This table concisely compares the definitions and examples of High Temperatures: Poikilotherms and Homeotherms. o Increase respiration, sometimes above the rate of photosynthesis. CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE IN o For growth to occur, the rate of HOMEOTHERMS photosynthesis must exceed the rate Homeotherms regulate their body temperature of respiration. through various mechanisms: Hypothalamus: Acts as a receptor in WIND: ABIOTIC COMPONENT temperature regulation by detecting Definition: fluctuations in temperature via Wind refers to the horizontal movement of air thermoreceptors. that tends to equalize lateral differences in temperature and pressure. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 12  TRANS: MONSOONS: Movement of air parallel to the Earth's Large scale seasonal winds. surface. o Southwest Monsoon (Habagat): June to October, subjected to Blows from areas of high pressure towards abundant rainfall and extensive cloud areas of low pressure. development at the western sections of the country. The vertically moving air column that gives the effect of “bumpy air” is known as o Northwest Monsoon (Amihan): aviation, e.g., air pockets or ordinary November to February, subjected to turbulence. rainfall and extensive cloud development at the eastern sections DESCRIBING WIND: of the country. Wind is described with direction and speed. The Philippines has a year-round humid, Direction: tropical climate. o Expressed as the direction from which the wind is blowing. o Easterly winds: Blow from east to west. o Westerly winds: Blow from west to east. Speed: o Wind speeds are based on the descriptions of winds in a scale called the Beaufort Scale, which divides wind speeds into 12 different categories, from less than 1 mph to more than 73 mph. ATMOSPHERIC GASES Types of Atmospheric Gases: 1. Nitrogen 2. Oxygen 3. Water vapor 4. Carbon dioxide 5. Methane 6. Nitrous oxide 7. Ozone Greenhouse Gases: Definition: Any gaseous compound in the atmosphere capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 13  TRANS: Impact: By increasing heat in the → Cold polar areas and subtropical continental atmosphere, greenhouse gases are deserts are locations where the volume of responsible for the greenhouse effect, which water vapor can approach zero percent ultimately leads to global warming. NITROGEN Removal from Atmosphere: Deposited at Earth's surface mainly by specialized nitrogen-fixing bacteria. By way of lightning through precipitation. IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF WATER VAPOR: → It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through the latent heat energy exchange. Importance: Adds essential nutrients to Earth's surface → The condensation of water vapor creates soils and various water bodies, promoting precipitation that falls to the Earth’s surface plant growth. providing needed fresh water for plants and animals. Return to Atmosphere: Through biomass combustion. → It helps warm the Earth’s atmosphere through the greenhouse effect. Via denitrification processes. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO₂): OXYGEN Abundance: → Exchanged between the atmosphere and life o 5th most abundant gas in the through the process of photosynthesis and atmosphere. respiration. Increase: o Volume has increased by over 35% in the last 300 years. o Increase primarily due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and other land-use changes. Role: WATER VAPOR o An important greenhouse gas → Varies in concentration in the atmosphere both spatially and temporally o Human-caused increase in its concentration has strengthened the → Highest concentration is found near the greenhouse effect and has definitely equator over the oceans and tropical rain contributed to global warming over forests the last 100 years. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 14  TRANS: Natural Exchange: o Naturally exchanged between the o Enhances the greenhouse effect, atmosphere and life through trapping heat in the atmosphere. processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Human Activities: o Its release is primarily attributed to human activities like agriculture and METHANE (CH₄): industrial processes. Characteristics: o Very strong greenhouse gas. OZONE (O₃): o Concentration has increased by more Characteristics: than 150% since 1750. o Triatomic molecule composed of three oxygen atoms. Sources: o Rice cultivation under anaerobic o Found in the Earth's stratosphere and conditions in flooded rice paddies. troposphere. o Digestive processes of domestic Functions: grazing animals. o In the stratosphere, ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from o Termites and their digestive the sun, protecting life on Earth. processes. o In the troposphere, ozone is a o Landfills where organic wastes pollutant and a greenhouse gas. decompose. Environmental Impact: o Coal mining, oil, and gas o Decrease in stratospheric ozone due extraction. to human-created chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has led Impact: to ozone depletion, particularly over o Significant contributor to the Antarctica (ozone hole). greenhouse effect, enhancing global warming. o Tropospheric ozone contributes to respiratory problems and damages NITROUS OXIDE (N₂O): vegetation. Characteristics: o Plays a role in the greenhouse effect, Sources: though its contribution is minor o Natural ozone formation through compared to other greenhouse photochemical reactions in the gases. stratosphere. Sources: o Human activities such as industrial o Agriculture, particularly from the use processes, vehicle emissions of synthetic fertilizers. (nitrogen oxides), and chemical solvents contribute to tropospheric o Fossil fuel combustion. ozone formation. o Biomass burning. WHAT ARE CFCS? → Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, o Industrial processes. nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. Environmental Impact: o Contributes to global warming and → They are used in the manufacture of aerosol ozone depletion in the stratosphere. sprays, blowing agents for foams and LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 15  TRANS: packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants ROCKS AND SOILS → Soil is the material that serves as an interface between the atmosphere, and the lithosphere and with the hydrosphere. → Formation of soil is attributed to the combined effect of physical, chemical, and biotic forces acting on organic and weathered rock fragments. → Soil is considered as a natural body of mineral and organic material that is formed in response to many environmental factors and processes acting on and changing soil permanently. O HORIZON → The "O" stands for ORGANIC. → Rich in organic material of plant and animal origin. → Materials are in various stages of decomposition. → The decomposed organic material is called humus. → And decomposed or partially decomposed letters such as leaves and twigs. A HORIZON → Also known as the "TOPSOIL". → Darker in color than layers lying below it. → Also known as the biomantle because this is where most of the biological activities takes place. → Mineral horizon. SOIL HORIZON → Soil is made up of distinct layers that lie one → Accumulation of humified organic matter above the other, parallel to the soil surface. intermixed with mineral fraction. → Each distinct layer is called a soil horizon B HORIZON → Also referred to as the "SUBSOIL". → A vertical cross section of a soil known as the soil profile reveals the various horizons of the → Rich in clay and minerals like iron or soil. aluminum. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 16  TRANS: → Organic material may reach this layer by the OXISOLS process of leaching. → Only in the tropics → Plant roots marriage this layer. → Common in the Philippines → Radish or brownish due to the oxides of iron → Oxi comes from the French word OXIDE and clay. → Intensely weathered C HORIZON → Known as the "REGOLITH" → Yellow to red in color due to iron oxides. → Mainly made of large rocks or lumps of → Clayey but the ability to return nutrients is low partially broken bedrock. → Do not have distinct horizons and are very → Least affected by weathering as it lies deep deep within the soil and an accessible to the soil forming agents. → Variety of tropical crops can be grown but much fertilizer is needed → Plants do not reach deep down to these layers. ARIDISOLS → Dry soils of desserts → Devoid of organic matter. → Latin aridus for DRY TYPES OF SOIL ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF PARENT MATERIAL, CLIMATE AND → Do not receive enough rain to permit normal VEGETATION. agriculture Oxisols Aridisols → Have clay enriched subsoil and/or cemented Mollisols to non-cemented deposits of salts or Alfisols carbonates Ultisols Spodosls → White areas are those calcium carbonate or Entisols limestones Inceptisols MOLLISOLS Vertisols → Have a distinctive dark surface that is Histosols enriched with organic matter Andisols Gelisols → Surface layer has a soft, fluffy feel. → Formed from nutrient rich parent materials A3EGHIMOSUV commonly in grasslands. → Naturally fertile and hold large amounts of GELISOL water. → soils of very cold climates that contain PERMAFROST within two meters of the → Prized for agriculture surface. ALFISOLS → Permafrost is soil or underwater sediment → Form in semiarid to humid areas that have which continuously remains below 0 °C for a clay in reached and nutrient enriched two years or more. subsoil. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 17  TRANS: → Commonly characterized by having a mixed INCEPTISOLS vegetative cover but were dominantly → Altered horizons but not weathered forested soils. enough to become illuvial horizons o The introduction of salts or colloids → Have the potential to be very productive if into one soil horizon from another by conserved but can be also degraded rapidly percolating water. if eroded. ▪ It is the process of a liquid slowly passing through a ULTISOLS filter. → Similar to alfisols in that they have an ochric → From the Latin word inceptum for and argellic diagnostic features BEGINNING → Highly weather and low in nutrients → Young or in the beginning stage of soil formation → From the Latin word ultimus for ULTIMATE → Shallow to bedrock, or occurs steeply sloping → Lower ph and organic matter than alfisol and land redder in color → Occur in a wide range of temperature and → Surface soil is coarser-textured, making it moisture environments. easy to till. VERTISOLS → Clay-enriched subsoil stores water for plant → Clay soils that SHRINK and develop cracks roots. when dry and SWELL when they are moist SPODOSOLS → Ert from the Latin word vertare for → Typically have a darker surface layer TURNOVER. underlain by a light eluvial horizon over a reddish, aluminum and/or iron enriched → The shrinking and swelling can damage horizon. buildings and roads. → Get its name from the bleached layer that → The mineral montmorillonite in the clay of looks like wood ashes or the Greek word fraction causes this property. spodos for WOOD ASHES. → Acid and generally under forests. HISTOSOLS → Dark soils that have slightly decomposed → Requires careful water and fertility to well decomposed organic materials management because they are very sandy. → 1st from the Greek word histos for TISSUES. ENTISOLS → Immature soils that lack the vertical → Poorly drained and occur in low lying areas. development of horizons ANDISOLS → Often associated with recently deposited → Formed in material that has recently ejected sediments from wind, water, or ice erosion. from volcanoes (ash) and are commonly found on land surrounding the pacific rim → Has a little or slight development and → From Japanese word ando meaning BLACK properties that affect their parent material → High porosity (percentage of volume not → The root word ent comes from the word occupied by solid material), particle surface RECENT. area and water holding capacity ROCKS LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 18  TRANS: → Earth's lithosphere is made up of rocks → Rocks are composed of one or more minerals aggregated together to form a cohesive solid → Petrology- study of rocks → Classify the rocks in different ways Origin (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) Mineral composition Texture Color WEATHERING → Changes in rocks brought about by exposure to air, water, changing temperature, and reactive chemical agents. Mechanical/physical- is disintegration of rocks by ACIDS temperature, water, wind, and other → Important inorganic substances that are factors. requisites in biological systems and necessary as components of ecosystems to sustain life to some organisms Chemical- changes the chemical makeup of rocks and it breaks it → Acids have the following characteristics: down. Corrosive (burns your skin) → Soil characteristics vary depending on: Sour taste Type of bedrock or parent matter H+ ions when dissolved in water Type of vegetation pH less than 7 Climate Turns blue litmus to red Topography Reacts with bases to form salt and Age of soil water Reacts with metals to form hydrogen gas CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES Reacts with carbonates to carbon dioxide, water and salt INORGANIC ORGANIC Acids Carbohydrates Bases Proteins Salts Lipids Water Nucleic acids Carbon dioxide INORGANIC SUBSTANCES → Various chemical substances found in the ecosystems in the form of acids, base, salts, water and carbon dioxide which are also important and have an effect on the organisms functioning in the ecosystem. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 19  TRANS: BASES → Alkaline substances known to buffer acidic → Highest surface tension than any other conditions liquids than Hg Surface tension is the elastic → Characteristics are: tendency of liquids which makes Corrosive them acquire the least surface area Soapy feel possible. Surface tension is an Having a pH of more than 7 important property that markedly Turns red litmus paper to blue influences many ecosystems. Contains hydroxyl ions (-OH) Reacts with acids to form salt and water SALTS → Ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base → Composed of cations (positively charged CARBON DIOXIDE ions) and anions (negative ions) so that the → It is a naturally occurring chemical compound product is electrically neutral (without a net composed of two oxygen atoms covalently charge) bonded to a single carbon atom → Basic salts – hydrolyze to produce → Gas at standard temperature and pressure hydroxide ions when dissolved in water (STP) In chemistry, established standard → Acid salts – hydrolyze to produce temperature and pressure (informally hydronium ions in water abbreviated as STP) ▪ as a temperature of 273.15 K → Neutral salts – those that are neither acid (0 °C, 32 °F) and an nor basic salts ▪ absolute pressure of exactly 100,000 Pa or 0.9869 atm. WATER → It is the most essential component of life → Part of carbon dioxide cycle → Hydrosphere consists about 71% of water. → By-product of combustion → It is considered as the universal solvent – ORGANIC SUBSTANCES acts as a medium of transport because of its → Are materials that contain large amounts of properties as a solvent carbon in combination with hydrogen and oxygen. → Great ionizing power – can produce ions when in solution with other substances → 4 major organic substances in biological systems: → High specific heat – great capacity for Carbohydrates absorbing heat with only minimal change in Proteins temperature Lipids Nucleic acids → Latent heat of fusion – quantity of heat required to convert one gram of ice at 0º C in → Essential in the make-up of life water. CARBOHYDRATES → Latent heat of vaporization – quantity of → Hydrates of carbon or saccharides heat required to convert one gram of water at Monosaccharides 100º C to steam Disaccharides LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 20  TRANS: Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides – storage of energy NUCLEIC ACIDS and as structural components → Are biological molecules essential for life PROTEINS → Make up the most of important → Made of amino acids arranged in a linear macromolecules found in abundance in all chain and joined together by peptide bonds living things. → Enzymes that catalyze the chemical PERIODIC DISTURBANCES reactions in metabolism → Catastrophic (involving or causing sudden great damage or suffering) disturbances can → 2 main types of amino acids: devastate biological communities Essential – cannot be produced by the body and must be brought in → Fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, and volcanic through the diet. eruptions Non-essential – can be made by the → After the disturbance, the area is re- body and not required in the diet colonized by organisms or repopulated by survivors but the structure of the community → 2 main types of proteins: undergoes a succession of changes during Complete – contain all of the the rebound. essential amino acids → Some disturbances, such as volcanic Incomplete – lacks one or more of the eruptions, are so infrequent and irregular essential amino acids over space and time that organisms have not acquired evolutionary adaptations to them. LIPIDS → Molecular organic compounds composed → Fire, although unpredictable over the short largely of carbon and hydrogen that are term, recurs frequently in some communities, essential for cell growth and many plants have adapted to this → Non-soluble in water and combine with → Several communities actually depend on carbohydrates and proteins to form the periodic fire to maintain them majority of all plant and animal cells → More commonly synonymous with the word “fats” → 3 major purposes of lipids: Energy storage Cell membrane development Component of hormones and vitamins in the body → Lipoprotein –combination of fat and protein → Cholesterol – naturally occurring substance in the body and is comprised of lipids Pine trees often require fire to open their resin-sealed cones and release their seeds, → 2 types of cholesterol: a process crucial for regeneration and High density lipoprotein (HDL) ensuring the survival of their species. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 21  TRANS: Environmental succession refers to the CROWN FIRES gradual and predictable process of change in → These types of fire occur in forests during the composition and structure of ecological periods of drought and low relative humidity, communities over time, following a particularly in areas with heavy disturbance or initial colonization of an area. accumulations of understory material called It typically involves a series of stages or seral ladder fuels such as fallen trees, logging communities that transition from pioneer slash, and combustible understory species to stable, climax communities, vegetation. driven by ecological interactions and environmental conditions. TYPES OF NATURAL FIRE Surface Fires Ground Fires Crown Fires SURFACE FIRES → Usually move rapidly through an area and do LIMITING FACTORS not consume all organic layers AND TOLERANCE → Limiting factors are environmental influences → This type of fires burns the upper litter layer that constrain the productivity of organisms, and small branches that lie on or near the populations, or communities and thereby ground. prevent them from achieving their full biological potential which could be realized → Moisture in the organic horizons often under optimal conditions. prevents ignition of the humus layer and protects the soil and soil inhabiting → Temperature cannot be too cold or hot and organisms from the heat the availability of nutrients cannot be too small or too large. → Light, temperature, humidity, wind speed, availability of food, nutrients, etc. → Example: plant lacking in phosphorous. GROUND FIRES → Law of Minimum - the growth and well-being → These fires usually occur only during periods of an organism is ultimately limited by those of protracted drought when the entire soil essential resources that is in its lowest organic layer may dry sufficiently but they supply relative to what is required may burn for weeks or months until precipitation and low temperature extinguish → Law of Tolerance – each physical factor in the fire or they run out of fuel. the environment, a minimum and maximum limit exists called the tolerance limit; beyond which the organism does not thrive or survive → Principle of Limiting Factors – an ecological generalization that suggests at any given time in a particular ecosystem, productivity constrained by a single, metabolically essential factor that is present in the least supply relative to the potential biological demand. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 22  TRANS: ECOLOGICAL NICHE → The role on how organism relates or fits in the ecosystem that it belongs to → Morphology – the physical attributes of the organisms → Habitat – location or place in the environment where the organisms live SUMMARY TO DIFFERENTIATE NICHE FROM HABITAT → Niche is more on how the organisms behave in the places where they belong while the habitat is focused on the places where each organism belongs. → Niche is more on how organisms react to their environment while the habitat on how their environment affects them. → The short definition of niche is how an organism makes a living in the place it belongs while habitat is where the organisms live. HOMEOSTASIS IN THE ECOSYSTEM → Homeostasis – refers to the optimum balance in any system, be it biological or environmental in nature. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS Terrestrial Aquatic LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 23  TRANS: cyanobacteria use solar energy to CHAPTER 3: produce sugar (carbohydrates), which through cellular respiration converts sugar into adenosine ENERGY triphosphate (ATP), the energy molecule or fuel used by all living things FLOW → The conversion of unusable energy is associated with the actions of green pigment called chlorophyll. THROUGH → Another term for producers is autotrophs ECOSYSTEM TROPHIC LEVELS → Used to locate the position or level of an organism during its energy-seeking activities. → Organisms that can make glucose during photosynthesis are called PRODUCERS. → The four major trophic levels are: Primary producers (plants, algae, cyanobacteria) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary consumers (carnivores) Tertiary consumers (detritivores) PRIMARY CONSUMERS → Are organisms that eat autotrophs or primary PRIMARY PRODUCERS producers → Refer to photosynthetic organisms that get their energy from the sun to make their own → Typically, herbivores food during photosynthesis Obtain their energy and nutrients Photosynthesis is the process from plants whereby plants, algae, and LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 24  TRANS: FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS FOOD CHAIN Definition: The path of food from a final consumer back to a producer. e.g., Lady bug, antelope, bison, zooplankton, manatee SECONDARY CONSUMER → A carnivore directly feeding on a primary consumer. Two Basic Types of Natural Food Chains: 1. Grazer Food Chain: o Involves herbivores that graze on or consume plants. TERTIARY CONSUMER o Herbivores are usually eaten by → A carnivore that eats a secondary consumer. carnivores. o Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk. OMNIVORES → Animals that eat both plants and animals. 2. Detritus Food Chain: o Involves decomposers that obtain food from plant and animal waste and remains. o Example: Dead organic matter → Detritivores (earthworms) → Decomposers (bacteria, fungi). LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 25  TRANS: FOOD WEB Definition: Food chains that are connected at different points, forming a complex network of feeding relationships. Characteristics: Interconnectedness: Multiple food chains interlinked. Energy Flow: Demonstrates how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. Stability: Provides stability to the ecosystem, as organisms have multiple food sources. Example of Food Web: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk Grass → Rabbit → Fox Dead Organic Matter → Earthworms → Birds PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY AND BIOMASS → The amount of energy available in a food web decreases with each higher feeding level. LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 26  TRANS: less than 100% due to the production of waste energy. The transfer of energy from the sun to producer to primary consumer then to higher order consumers can be shown in a FOOD CHAIN. ENERGY PYRAMIDS SHOW Energy Flow in Ecosystems Amount of Available Energy Decreases for Higher Consumers: o As energy moves up the food chain from producers to higher-level consumers, the amount of available energy decreases. Amount of Available Energy Decreases THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Down the Food Chain: → Overview: The basic principles that govern o Energy decreases at each trophic the amount of energy flowing through the level, with significant energy loss as biosphere. heat at each step. → Thermodynamics: Refers to the use of heat Large Number of Producers Needed: as a convenient measurement of chemical o It takes a large number of producers energy in any reaction. to support a small number of primary consumers. This is due to the energy → First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of loss in the conversion from producers Conservation of Energy): to herbivores. Principle: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be Large Number of Primary Consumers transformed from one form to Needed: another. o Similarly, it takes a large number of primary consumers to support a small Implication: The total energy of an number of secondary consumers, isolated system remains constant. highlighting the inefficiency of energy transfer through trophic levels. → Second Law of Thermodynamics (Atrophy): Principle: During any energy change, some of the energy is converted into unusable forms, particularly heat, often referred to as waste energy. Implication: The efficiency of energy transformations is always LLOYD RIEL FELONIA 27  TRANS: