Lecture 1 - Principles of Environment Management PDF

Lecture 1 Principles of Environment Management STRUCTURE Overview Learning Objectives 1.1 Introducing Environmental Management (EM) 1.1.1 Definition and scope 1.1.2 Goals of EM 1.1.3 Need for EM 1.1.4 Need for sustainable development 1.1.5 EM t...

Lecture 1 Principles of Environment Management STRUCTURE Overview Learning Objectives 1.1 Introducing Environmental Management (EM) 1.1.1 Definition and scope 1.1.2 Goals of EM 1.1.3 Need for EM 1.1.4 Need for sustainable development 1.1.5 EM tools 1.2 Participants in EM 1.2.1 Existing users 1.2.2 Groups seeking change 1.2.3 Groups with little control 1.2.4 The public 1.2.5 Facilitators 1.2.6 Controllers 1.3 Ethics and the Environment 1.3.1 The ph ilosophy o f Aldo Leopold 1.3.2 Factors that necessitate environmental eth ics 1.4 International Environmental Movement 1.5 Environmental Concerns in India 1.6 Ecology and the environment 1.6.1 Ecosystem and its characteristics 1.6.2 Structure of Ecosystem 1.6.2.1 Biotic Components 1.6.2.2 Ab iotic co mponents 1.6.2.3 Food chains, Food webs and Tropic levels 1.6.3 Processes o f Ecosystem 1.6.3.1 Biomass. Energy and energy flow 1.6.3.2 Che mical Element cyc les 1.6.4 Succession 1.6.4.1 Role of succession in restoration and recovery of ecosystem 1.6.4.2 Feature of succession 1.6.5 Effect of imbalance on the Ecosyste m 1.6.6 Ecolog ical Footprint 1 Environment Management Summary Suggested Readings Model Answers to Learning Activities OVERVIEW 2  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Unplanned developmental activities as well as ever-increasing population have caused enormous strain on the environment resources and hence societies across the world face several problems of environmental degradation. However, it is imperative to maintain a balance between the capacity of the environment and the sustainable utilization of resources. This is only possible by understanding the environment in its totality and the principles of its scientific management. Today, 'Environment Management' (EM) is a significant term. To comprehend the term, one must understand the issues that relate to it. Development activities related to population growth can lead to environmental degradation in a number of ways, not least depletion of resources. The critical task of EM is to balance the capacity of the environment against developmental requirements effectively. This task can be achieved through application of sustainable development/utilization mechanisms which are based on scientific principles of environment. We will first discuss the fundamentals of EM and ecology in Unit 1 and, subsequently, the various environmental policies, legislations and international treaties in Unit 2. In Units 3 and 4, we will deal with the concept of environmental impact assessment (EIA) and the preparation of EIA report, respectively. We will discuss the methodology and processes of environmental auditing in Unit 5. In Unit 6, we will introduce you to life cycle assessment (LCA) in the context of EM. In Unit 7, we will explain the various EM system standards. We will then take up the environmental management issues and techniques in Unit 8.We discuss environmental design and economics in Units 9 and 10, respectively. As an optional unit we would discuss about industrial pollution prevention control (IPPC) in unit 11, Finally, you will learn the environment sustainability 3 Environment Management Against this background, let us now discuss Unit 1. We will begin this Unit by introducing you to the scope and definition of EM. We will then discuss the fundamentals of EM. We will also touch upon some of the tools in use to address environmental problems; discuss the role of the participants in managing the environment and explain the concept of environmental ethics. We outline the current environmental concerns in India. We will close the unit by discussing about ecology and the environment. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this Unit, you should be able to: explain the fundamentals of EM; identify the tools in use for EM; Explain the role of professionals and ethics in EM. Explain fundamentals of ecology and environment along with its management Write a report on recent environmental concerns in INDIA 1.1 INTRODUCING ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT (EM) The natural environment, harbouring myriad life forms and ecosystems, is an outcome of millions of years of evolution and mutation. We depend on the environment to meet our basic requirements such as food, fuel, fibre, fodder, minerals and vital support systems (e.g., water and air). However, due to our continuous indulgence in the exploitation of nature for immediate gains, we contribute to environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources, and this should be arrested. It is, therefore, 4  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management essential that we understand the function and interaction of physical and biological elements of the environment and apply this knowledge for sound management programmes to conserve the natural resources we are endowed with. Sustainable management of renewable resources in industry, agriculture, recreation, health, forestry, fisheries, education or urban development is, therefore, critical. The conservation of resources and maintenance of the quality of ecosystem requires as much imaginative and innovative technology as the active participation of the public. Environment management thus involves managing the environment while ensuring the prudent use of natural resources without reducing their productivity and quality. Due to impacts of modern human society the environment is depreciating in life sustaining capabilities at ever increasing pace, and this should be regulated. It is therefore, essential to understand the function and interaction of physical and biological elements of the environment and develop management programs to conserve natural resources. Objective of this course is to explore ways to reduce environmental footprints in day to day activities. Sustainable environmental management of renewable resources oceans, atmosphere, freshwater, land, energy, food, materials, forestry, fisheries, etc.. Major requirements to attain sustainability are to develop innovative and imaginative technologies in an eco- friendly system of working along with active participation of the public towards the environment. Essentially, EM represents the management of various activities, including environmental action plan, conservation of resources, environmental status evaluation and environmental legislation and administration, and focuses more on implementation, monitoring, auditing, and practice and real-world issues than on theoretical planning. 1.1.1 Definition and scope 5 Environment Management Different people define environmental management differently, depending on the context in which they work. For the purposes of this Course, let us consider the following two views: (i) The process of allocating natural and artificial resources so as to make optimum use of the environment in satisfying basic human needs at the minimum, and more if possible, on a sustainable basis (Jolly, 1978). (ii) A generic description of a process undertaken by systems- oriented professionals with a natural science, social science, or less commonly, an engineering, law, or design background, tackling problems of the human altered environment on an interdisciplinary basis from a quantitative and/or futuristic viewpoint (Dorney, 1989). Some of the characteristics of EM include the following: It is often used as a generic term. It supports sustainable development. It deals with a world affected by human beings. It demands a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary approach. It has to integrate different development viewpoints. It seeks to integrate science, social science, policy-making and planning. It recognizes the desirability of meeting, and if possible exceeding basic human needs. The time-scale involved extends beyond the short-term and concerns range from local to global. It should show opportunities as well as address threats and problems. 6  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management It stresses stewardship, rather than exploitation. Role of environmental manager is to interface with ecology, economics, law, politics, etc. while developing EM action plan (key elements include environmental policy, audit, EM systems standards and external standards). In fact planning activities have long term impacts on the environment hence they should be managed at all levels: regional, national and international. This implies that an environmental manager must „think globally and act locally‟ and adopt a long-term holistic outlook. 1.1.2 Goals of EM The goals of EM, which is an approach for environmental stewardship integrating ecology, policy-making, planning and social development, include: preventing and resolving environmental problems; establishing limits; establishing and nurturing institutions that effectively support environmental research, monitoring and management; identifying threats and opportunities; sustaining and, if possible, improving existing resources; improving the quality of life; Identifying environmentally sound technologies or policies. Thus, EM demands scoping, i.e., deciding goals and setting limits on efforts. Having touched upon the definition and characteristics of EM, we will discuss some of the crucial issues relating to EM such as its need as a result of drastic population growth, sustainable development and EM tools. But, let us first workout Learning Activity 1.1. 7 Environment Management LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1 List some of the goals of environmental management. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.. 1.1.3 Need for Environment Management The world population is estimated to be over 6 billion. The growth of human population is continuously increasing. In the last 10, 000 years, the population of the world has increased over a 1000-fold and much of that change has occurred in the last century. This phenomenal growth in population has put pressure on the means of subsistence, throwing it out of balance with the environment. The interaction between population and environment is very complex and dynamic. Admittedly, however, we are yet to understand this complex interrelationship at its micro-level and its spatio-temporal ramifications over a region or the globe in its 8  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management entirety. What is, nevertheless, certain is that as the population grows, the level of consumption of natural resources and production of wastes proportionately increases (Harrison, 1990). And, we know that the environment is constantly changing, due to human activities, leading to such problems as soil erosion, floods, droughts, climate changes, desertification and general degradation of the environment. In a finite world, there are limits, and there indeed are complex environment-population linkages and feedback. Sustainable development is, therefore, necessary to sustain the quality of life without exceeding environmental limits. We will study this, next. 1.1.4 Need for sustainable development The great surge in development and technology over the last two centuries has contributed to the increase in quantities of chemicals sufficient to damage natural systems on a grand scale, more often than not, involving the whole world. Acid rain, desertification, destruction of species, greenhouse modification and ozone layer depletion are well known examples of these impacts. Protection of the natural ecosystem has long-term benefits for humans in utilitarian terms through maintenance of gene pools, bio-diversity and other potentially useful factors and, in spiritual terms, through living in harmony with nature. The ecosystem‟s intrinsic values and rights, regardless of human needs, therefore, should be taken into account apart from considering it a resource to be exploited for human settlement, food and energy production. Sustainable development, therefore, is imperative. It is defined as a pattern of social and structured economic transformation (i.e., 9 Environment Management development), which optimises the economic and societal benefits available in the present, without jeopardising the likely potential for similar benefits in the future. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed level of economic well being that can be perpetuated continuously for many human generations. This implies using natural resources in a renewable manner that does not eliminate or degrade them, or diminish their usefulness for future generations. It further implies using non-renewable (i.e., exhaustible) mineral resources in a manner that does not unnecessarily preclude easy access to them by future generations. Three of the several definitions that capture these aspects are given below: (i) Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). (ii) Sustainable development ensures that the maximum rate of resource consumption and waste discharge for a selected development portfolio would be sustained indefinitely, in a defined planning region, without progressively impairing its bio-productivity and ecological integrity. Environmental conservation, therefore, contrary to general belief, accelerates rather than hinders economic development. Therefore, the development plans have to ensure: 1. Sustainable and equitable use of resources for meeting the needs of the present and future generations without causing damage to environment; 2. To prevent further damage to our life-support systems; 10  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management 3.To conserve and nurture the biological diversity, gene pool and other resources for long-term food security (MoEF, 1999). (iii) The primary objective of the Sustainable Development is to reduce the absolute poverty of the world's poor through providing lasting and secure livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural disruption and social instability (E. Barbier, 1987 http://sdnp.delhi.nic.in). Thus, the doctrine of sustainability provides a mechanism for developments to occur in harmony with environmental protection and enhancement. It presents a challenge to technologists to manage construction and manufacturing pr ocedures so as to cause no net environmental harm and to preserve environmental resources for future generations. Some of the approaches to EM to achieve sustainability include the following: Ad hoc approach: This means an approach developed in reaction to a specific situation. Problem-solving approach: This refers to an approach that follows a series of logical steps to identify problems, needs and solutions. Systems approach: This approach focuses on ecosystem (e.g., mountain; high latitude; savannah; desert; island; lake, etc.), agro-ecosystem, etc. Regional approach: This is based on ecological zones or bio- geophysical units such as watershed, river basin, coastal zone, islands, etc. 11 Environment Management Specialist discipline approach: This refers to the approach often adopted by professionals like air quality management, water quality management, land management, environmental health, urban management, conservation area management, etc. Voluntary sector approach: This represents the approach NGOs (Non-Government Organisations) encourage and/or support. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2 Write three most important driving forces to be considered in planning for sustainable development. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.  1.1.5 EM tools 12  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management One of the outcomes of the three decades of policy development since 1970 has been the evolution of the techniques for the analysis and management of environmental effects. The tools considered in this Course include: (i) Environment assessment (EA). (ii) Economic assessment, usually through cost-benefit analysis (CBA). (iii) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). (iv) Environment audits. (v) Waste minimisation programs and environmental management systems. (vi) Life cycle assessments (LCA). (vii) Environmental design (ED). These tools are indispensable as far as environmental management is concerned. But, rather than being comprehensive, self-contained procedures, these tools are really aids that can be adapted for various situations. Legislative and bureaucratic frameworks for environmental management differ considerably, not only between nations, but also among states or regions within countries. Some procedures fit within others, for example, an environment impact statement is a tool or instrument, used within a more general environment assessment process. The methods are contributions to decision-making, rather than complete decision-making procedures. You will learn these tools in greater detail from Unit 3 onwards. 13 Environment Management LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3 List the various environmental management tools mentioned in this Unit. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit. 1.2 PARTICIPANTS IN EM Adam (1990) identified the following two groups involved in environment and development: (i) People or governments who are uninformed of the implications of development, or who are unable to voice their views adequately and affect change. (ii) Consultants, scientists, economists and bankers and those bent on riches or blinkered by concern for sovereignty, religion or national security. In any given environmental management situation there are likely to be a number of different perspectives, and hence the various possible responses. An environmental manager has to grasp the 14  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management sum total of the perspectives and try to avoid conflicts between participants and minimise damage to the environment. The participants of environmental management can be categorised as existing users, groups seeking change, groups with little control, the public, facilitators and controllers. In what follows in this Section, we will discuss these participants in EM. 1.2.1 Existing users This category refers to those who currently use land or other resources. And, those using the environment or resources usually evolve rights and develop management skills. However, problems arise where unwritten traditional strategies and rights break down or get usurped, typically, by incoming migrants and settlers, urban elites or powerful commercial organisations. Worldwide, the expropriation of common resources from traditional users has become a problem (The Ecologist, 1993). There has, however, been a growing practice of seeking to consult and involve local people (i.e., indigenous groups) in environmental management, and to understand and make wider use of indigenous knowledge (Klee, 1980). EM can learn a lot from the study of local people‟s livelihood strategies. Since the 1975 - 1985 UN Decade for Women, there has been an interest in studying the role of women in EM. According to the different perspectives adopted, these studies take different shapes as under: Women, environment and development: This focuses on women as having a special relationship with the environment as its users and managers. 15 Environment Management Gender and development: This seeks gender as a key dimension of social difference affecting people‟s experiences, concerns and capabilities. Women in development: This focuses on reasons for women‟s exclusion or marginalisation from decision-making and receipt of the benefits of development. 1.2.2 Groups seeking change This category consists of governments (with conflicting demands from various ministries or policy-makers), commerce (e.g., national, local, multi-national companies, etc.), individuals seeking personal gain or seeking to change the prevailing situation, international agencies, NGOs, media, academics, etc. It is probably the exception to the rule for special-interest groups not to control policymaking and development, although a few do so with the aim of improving environmental care. The environmental manager should be vigilant for such control, and seek to reduce it if it acts against environmental quality. When environmental management involves more than one country, which is often the case, negotiation skills are at least as important as access to technology, knowledge and management strategies (Vogler and Imber, 1995). 1.2.3 Groups with little control This category consists of the poor with no option but to over- exploit what is available without investing in improvement; refugees, migrants, relocates, eco-refugees (i.e., those forced to move or marginalised so that they change the environment to survive), workers in industry/mining, etc., who face health and safety challenges, while carrying out changes. Many identify poverty alleviation and environmental care as two challenges for those in charge of development. These two issues are closely related, although linkages are often unclear and complex. 16  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management The poor, it is often claimed, degrade their environment in an effort to survive – a trap of poverty. Getting people out of poverty may be important for protecting the environment, but environmental managers must consider each local case to be sure of causes. For example, the causes of environmental degradation in urban areas may lie with policies affecting agriculturalists hundreds of kilometres away, causing them to migrate and increase city population. There are also situations where there is likely to be poverty-related environment stress: cities where population growth is outstripping employment and infrastructure; marginal, often vulnerable land where people have relocated, areas where traditional livelihood strategies are degenerating. 1.2.4 The public People, who are affected as bystanders, may wish to develop, conserve or change practices (if aware of what is happening) and those out of global concern form part of this category. The public usually consists of more than one group of people who probably have different, perhaps conflicting, views and goals with powerful groups dominating the situation. Environmental managers must, therefore, establish the needs of the weak and ensure that they are not ignored, yet work with the influential. Sustainable development strategies need to be designed to fit local conditions and to be co-ordinated to ensure that one locality does not conflict with another. Environmental management should act as mediator and catalyst to develop collaborative approaches (Selin and Chavez, 1995). Advantages of public involvement in environmental management are as follows: (i) The public may be able to provide advice on management considering local conditions. 17 Environment Management (ii) Often planning and management should be more accountable and more careful. (iii) Fears and opposition to management may be reduced, if people are informed. (iv) The communication gap between the experts and locals can be reduced. 1.2.5 Facilitators This category consists of funding agencies, consultants, planners, workers including migrants affected by health and safety issues, etc. Funding bodies can support environmentally desirable developments or withhold money until proposals are modified to meet required standards. Starting with the World Bank in the early 1970s, most funding bodies have developed environmental management units, guidelines and manuals (Turnham, 1991). There is also a huge diversity of bodies conducting research aimed at improving environmental management: universities, private research companies, independent international research institutes and UN or UN-related agencies. Most research is applied in response to perceived needs, but some is anticipatory and warns about possible threats and potentially useful strategies. 1.2.6 Controllers This category consists of government and international agencies, traditional rulers and religions, planners, law, consumer protection bodies and NGOs (including various green/environmental bodies), 18  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management trade organisations, media, concerned individuals, academics, global opinion, environmental managers, etc. The skills of environmental managers and ecologists are vital to determine the best strategies for the survival of fauna and flora and to organise sustainable land and resource use. NGOs have become important watchdogs of corporate, government and special-interest group activities. They have a multifaceted role: lobbying at international meetings and at national government level; media campaigning to increase public awareness and empowerment; fund-raising for environmental management, conservation and environmental education; researching environmentally sound strategies and approaches; acting as ginger groups to identify environmental problems and fight for their control, etc. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4 List three most important activities of your profession that affect environment. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.  A proper environment is essential to sustain all renewable resources: food, fiber, wood, air, water and even our health. However, the debate over the ethical values attached to the environment is as old as civilisation. We will discuss this in 19 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.5 Environment Management Section 1.4. But, before we do so, let us work out Learning Activity 1.5. 1.3 ETHICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT ‘’Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents’’.. It is concerned with the issue of responsible personal conduct with respect to natural landscapes, resources, species, and non-human organisms. It is cluster of beliefs, values and norms regarding how humans should interact with the environment. Human effects on the environment today have consequences for the future, and therefore, discussions of environmental ethics also involve the rights of future generations. The arguments for and against various principles in environmental 20  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management ethics are made more complex because of conflicting values. The resolution of the resulting conflict requires that we recognize differing values and have a basic scientific knowledge about the environment as well as the ability to clearly formulate a logical argument. The study would make you understand topics such as, the environmental philosophy with illustration of Aldo Leopold‟s land ethic and factors that demand environmental ethics. 1.3.1 The Environmental philosophy Environmental philosophy is that wing of philosophy that expresses trepidation with natural environment and livelihood of humans. Main areas of interest for philosophers include defining environment and its value, environmentalism and deep ecology, endangered species and restoration of nature. Its major components are environmental ethics, theology, environmental aesthetics and ecofeminism. Aldo Leopold, (Annexure I) formulated ecological restoration focusing on Land ethic in a book „A Sand County Almanac, 1949‟ (Annexure II), defined a new link between nature and people and has a stage for modern conservation movement. „For embracing this ethic ecologically literate citizens are required who can also solve global environmental challenges. “This Land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land.” 1.3.2 Environmental ethics and factors that necessitate it: In early 1970‟s philosopher‟s formulated environmental ethics as a study concerned with the value of the physical and biological environment. The focus of this study contrasts with 21 Environment Management traditional ethical studies, which had to do with the relationships among people. There are utilitarian, ecological, aesthetic and moral reasons for placing a value on the environment. The major factors that necessitate environmental ethics are: (i) New effects on nature: Because our modern technological civilisation affects nature greatly, we must examine the ethical consequences of these new actions. (ii) New knowledge about nature: Modern science demonstrates how we have changed and are changing our environment in ways not previously understood, thus raising new ethical issues. For example, until the past decade, few people believed that human activities could be changing the Earth‟s global environment. Now, however, scientists believe that burning fossil fuels and clearing forests have changed the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and this causes changes in our climates, and hence the need for global action. This new perspective raises new moral issues. (iii) Expanding moral concerns: Some people argue that animals, trees and even rocks have moral and legal rights, and that it is a natural extension of civilisation to begin including the environment in ethics. These expanded concerns lead to need for new ethics. After knowing Leopold‟s philosophy and ethics of environment there is a need for us to understand the history behind a diverse scientific, social and political movement for addressing environmental issues which is discussed in the next section. 1.4 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT 22  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Environmental impacts of developmental activities are being sounded since the early 1960s. One of the first and most influential warnings was Silent Spring, a book about the use of pesticides, written by Rachel Carson and published in 1962. In the mid-1960s some scientists were sounding warnings about the possibility of climate change due to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere resulting from burning of fossil fuels. The same period witnessed early environmental conferences like the two British "Countryside in 1970" conferences of 1963 and 1965, and the U.S. White House conference on “Natural Beauty” of 1965. In the United States of America (USA), this climate of thought and innovative legislators produced a law that represented a landmark in environmental management not only in the United States but worldwide – the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969. Revise The NEPA required "in agency planning and decision making an integrated interdisciplinary use of the natural and social services and the environmental design arts". It also required agencies to take account of non-quantified values, and to use ecological information and concepts in planning and decision- making affecting the quality of the environment. "Spaceship Earth" arrived in the 1970s with concern growing, some warnings, and a piece of new style landmark legislation to be added to the many pieces of air and water pollution control law that existed already around the globe. The 1970s was an era of response and action. The most influential responses were the United Nations Conferences on the Environment (1972), Population (1974) and Human Settlements (1976). The UN Conference was held in June 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden. As a result, the United Nations Environment programme 23 Environment Management (UNEP) was set up together with a fund to finance major projects. A 26-point declaration of environmental principles was adopted, calling for commitments by countries to deal with environmental problems of international significance. Approval was given to the Earth-Watch Program – a co-ordinated plan to use and expand existing monitoring systems to measure pollution levels around the world and their effects on climate. A convention to control ocean dumping of shore-generated wastes was endorsed. The International Whaling Commission was urged to adopt a ten-year moratorium on commercial whaling. Other proposals for conservation conventions were endorsed (e.g., the World Heritage Trust to protect areas of unique natural, historical or cultural value that are part of the heritage of all humankind, and a convention to protect endangered species of plants and animals, etc.). Three months prior to the U N Conference a report on phase one of the Club of Rome's projects on the Predicament of Mankind was published. The Limits to Growth described the work on a global model of the five factors that determine and limit growth – population, agricultural production natural resources, industrial production and pollution. The Club of Rome first came together in 1968 out of the concern of thirty individuals from ten countries to discuss the present and future predicament of humanity and to foster understanding of the interdependent components that make up the global system. Another conference, less visible than that of the United Nations, but like Limits to Growth, something as pointer to future, occurred also in 1972. This was the Second World Conference on National Parks and Protected Areas, held under the aegis of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). IUCN was established in 1948, and its work and influence would become of increasing importance, as biodiversity and the still accelerating forces of population growth, technology and pollution reduced the gene stocks of wild nature. 24  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management (In 1972 world population was 3.7 billion.) At this time the now well-known conflicts and concerns about the loss of tropical forests were yet to come. At this time also, conservation and development were seen as opposing, rather than complementary objectives as inferred by UNCED. In parallel with, and following the Stockholm Conference, there was a surge of policy-making and institution building in the developed world. In the decade of the 1970s, many governments introduced environmental legislation, established agencies with environmental responsibilities, or grafted these onto existing departments. Others moved more cautiously, with "pilot" policies that could be elaborated after experience had been gained. Environmental impact assessment (EIA), the discipline that could steer decision-making towards allowance for environmental factors was introduced in some countries. Often regarded with suspicion as an unnecessary impediment to legitimate developmental objectives and progress, EIA took a decade to be acknowledged as a tool that could actually produce projects superior in both quality and value. In 1971, the World Bank established an environmental section to promote environmental reconnaissance of hydro-projects in recognition of one of the fundamentals of environmental management. The principle is that; knowledge of the environmental context of development proposals should be a base within which planning proceeds with constant reference to potential impacts. The major negative impacts of some hydro- projects had already included spread of water-borne disease. Loss of biodiversity due to destruction of habitat and wildlife, water quality effects on reservoirs and downstream locations, induced seismicity and decline of productive ecosystems. One of the objectives of the World Bank initiative was capacity building. Bank agents may have carried out the initial reconnaissance but 25 Environment Management borrowers were aided and encouraged towards developing competence and setting up of in-house environmental units. Development economic growth, technological expansion and exponential population increase continued and problems of global scale surfaced. By 1980, the handling and disposal of hazardous wastes was recognised as a national and global issue. Through the 1970s and 1980s, the growth of chemical manufacturing in developing countries exceeded that of the developed world. Samples showed that developing world populations ranked high in exposure to toxic chemicals, blood lead levels and DDT contamination of human milk. Effective national regulation and control programmes existed in developed countries, but not elsewhere. The discovery of grossly contaminated sites (a danger to water supplies, food chains, and human health generally) in the developed world could only raise questions, but not answers, about the developing world where disposal is haphazard, and neither disposal facilities nor national control frameworks exist. In I970, most air pollution legislation treated air pollution as a local phenomenon. By 1980, it had become global and was affecting the forests and lakes of Europe and North America. The major cause was the burning of fossil fuels. Global emissions of sulphur dioxides grew by an estimated 470% and emissions of carbon dioxide tenfold, in the 20th century. Nitrous oxide emissions in the USA have increased nine times over the same period. Given suitable atmospheric conditions, sulphur dioxides and nitrous oxides can be transported long distances and transformed into acids. It was realised that acid rain affected not only lakes and streams but also crops and vegetation. At ground level, ozone is also damaging to crops and vegetation. But in the upper atmosphere ozone acts as a filter by absorbing harmful wavelengths of ultra-violet radiation. In 1985, it was 26  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management confirmed that the ozone shield over the Antarctic was thinning, and a "hole" had developed, and an unprecedented, international action followed for a world action plan. Its main components were global monitoring, estimating the impact of changes in the ozone layer on radiation, skin cancer, ecosystems and regional climate, and collecting data on production and emissions. While the world action plan was developing, an international convention was being hammered out. The Montreal Protocol, providing a framework for action by each country, was agreed in 1987. Officials from most of the CFC producing/using countries agreed to a 50% reduction by 1999. But, new scientific evidence indicated that the situation was more serious than had been thought. The Helsinki Declaration of 1989 stated the intention of 80 countries to completely phase out CFCs by the year 2000. Another, and greater, global concern was also growing as the ozone saga unfolded. The concerns about increasing CO 2 levels, expressed by a few scientists in 1960s were confirmed in the 1980s by a large proportion of the scientific community. Data showed increasing concentrations, not only of CO 2 but also nitrous oxide (NO 2), methane (CH4) and specific chlorofluorocarbons. Their addition to the atmosphere permits it to absorb more of the infrared radiation emitted from the earth. The understanding and application of the concept that environment and development are integrated, complementary and indivisible, and are to be thought of as one, is fundamental to environmental management. This new message was given in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy, published by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wide Fund for nature (WWF). Its successor document, Caring for the Earth, was published in 1991. This strategy, so clearly complement to Our Common 27 Environment Management Future sets out the rationale and the strategic actions needed to achieve a sustainable future. The original World Conservation Strategy of 1980 introduced an important innovation in environmental management – the national level conservation strategy, subsequently prepared by over 50 countries. These identify the country‟s most urgent environmental needs, assist decision-makers in determining priorities, allocate resources and build institutional capacity to handle complex environmental issues. Preparation includes fundamental re- examination of laws, policies and institution. Similar to these national conservation strategies were national environmental action plans sponsored by the World Bank. In the early 1980s, the then Minister of the Environment of the Government of Norway, Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland worried by the growing incompatibility between human development on Earth and the possibility for Nature to withstand the resulting ecological stress undertook to launch a global investigation of this incompatibility. With the assistance of a former Vice President of the Republic of Sudan, she managed to assemble a team of 26 concerned persons of high calibre into what was named the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). The WCED project was given the green light - but not a full endorsement - by the United Nations and succeeded in obtaining support in kind and cash from a good number of countries. There were some noticeable exceptions to the supporting countries, such as the USA, Japan, France, the United Kingdom andGermany. Nevertheless, the WCED had sufficient means to commission a wide range of necessary surveys and studies by competent and well known scientists and professionals, access the statistics of many countries and all international organizations, and undertake 28  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management a series of hearings in a sample of countries around the world. Its exploration of the issues ended sometime in 1986. With the help of some countries (e.g., Canada), the WCED undertook to prepare a summary of its findings, with a synthesis, conclusions and recommendations. The result was a paperback report, under the title Our Common Future, published in April 1987 by Oxford University Press, gradually translated into a large number of languages and distributed widely around the world. The report was officially presented to the general Assembly of the United Nations in November 1987, and enthusiastically approved by most, if not all members. At the core of the recommendations made by the Commission was the goal of sustainable development, which was defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Our Common Future was a precursor, though not the only one, to United Nation‟s Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of June 1992 (popularly known as the Rio Earth summit). Both the report and the Conference link environment and development, bringing together within the concept of systems and interdependence, environment and development objectives once considered being in opposition. And, in 1992, Agenda 21, a global plan of action for sustainable development was adopted. In addition to adopting Agenda 21, the assembled leaders from over 100 countries signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity and endorsed the Rio Declaration and the Forest Principles. The Rio Declaration represents a set of 27 agreed principles aimed at the objective of a new and suitable global partnership, international agreements that respect the integrity of the global 29 Environment Management environmental and developmental system, and recognition of the integral and interdependent nature of Earth, our home. The outcomes of the discussion of Agenda 21 occupy more than 450 pages. Agenda 21 is the operational plan for moving humankind into the age of sustainability. It should be read and given profound consideration by all people, especially all technologists. Its implementation will demand commitment and the capacity of all nations, people and individuals. More than half the sections of Agenda 21 are of direct or indirect relevance to science and technology, e.g., those dealing with the protection of human health, human settlement, integration of environment and development in decision-making, protection of the atmosphere, integrated approaches to the planning and management of land resources, combating desertification and approaches to planning and management of land resources, combating desertification and drought, sustainable mountain development, conservation of biological diversity, environmentally sound management of biotechnology, toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes, solid wastes, radioactive wastes, the scientific and technological community, transfer of environmentally sound technology, education, national mechanisms, institutional arrangements and information. The Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was created in December 1992 to ensure an effective follow-up of UNCED; to monitor and report on implementation of the Earth Summit agreements at the local, national, regional and international levels. The CSD is a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), with 53 members. It was agreed that a five-year review of Earth Summit progress would be made in 1997 by the United Nations General Assembly meeting in special session. Earth Summit + 5: The Special Session of the General 30  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Assembly held in June 1997 adopted a comprehensive document entitled Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 prepared by CSD. It also adopted the programme of work of the Commission for 1998 - 2002. Rio + 10, the Earth Summit + 10, the Johannesburg Summit or formally, The World Summit on Sustainable Development took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, 2 - 11 September, 2002. Thousands participated at the Johannesburg Summit: heads of State and Government, national delegates and representatives from business and industry, children and youth, farmers, indigenous people, local authorities, non-governmental organisations, scientific and technological communities, women and workers and trade unions. According to General Assembly resolution 55/199 of 20 December 2000, the review would focus on the identification of accomplishments and areas where further efforts are needed to implement Agenda 21 and other outcomes of the UNCED. At the national level, Governments are encouraged to prepare national assessments on the progress achieved and challenges encountered. At the regional level, the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) have sponsored round tables of eminent persons and UN regional commissions facilitated regional ministerial preparatory meetings. At the global level, the UN Secretariat for the Summit organised three substantive meetings in the first half of the year 2002 before convening the Summit in September. Against the backdrop of the discussions we have had so far, we will next focus on the major environmental concerns in India. 1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN INDIA 31 Environment Management We can categorise environmental concerns in India as those arising from negative effects of the very process of development; and conditions of poverty and under development. The major problems, which encompass the area of EM, are: Burgeoning population and its impact on life support systems, which negate the positive impacts of the developmental programmes. Rapid growth in the population of domesticated animals over the past few decades accompanied by a loss of area under grassland and pastures. Around 3.5% of the geographical area is under grasslands, while the domesticated animal population numbers nearly 500 million (1991). Out of a total area of about 329 million hectares, 175 million hectares of land require special treatment to restore them for productive and profitable use. Land degradation is caused by water and wind erosion (159 million ha), salinity and alkalinity (8 million ha), and river action and other factors (7 million ha). The forest wealth is dwindling due to overgrazing and over-exploitation both for commercial and household needs, encroachments, unsustainable practices including certain practices of shifting cultivation, and developmental activities such as roads, buildings, irrigation and power projects. The recorded forest cover in the country is about 75 million hectare, which is 19.5% of the total geographical area against the national goal of 33% in the plains and 66% for hilly regions. Even within this area, a meagre 11% constitutes forests with 40% or more of crown cover. The annual rate of loss of the forest cover is 47,500 hectares. The loss of habitat is leading to the extinction of plant, animal and microbial species. Over 1500 plant and animal species are in the endangered category. 32  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management The wetlands of India, which are rich in aquatic and bird life providing food and shelter as also the breeding and spawning ground for the marine and fresh water fishes, are facing problems of pollution and over-exploitation. The major rivers of the country are facing problems of pollution and siltation. The coastline is under stress and coastal areas have been severely damaged due to indiscriminate construction, waste disposal near the water-line and aquaculture. Coastal vegetation including mangroves and sea grasses is facing extinction. The mountain ecosystems are under threat of serious degradation. India is witnessing a rising requirement for forest based goods due which there is extensive deforestation leading to severe loss of natural resources and in turn the erosion of valuable topsoil, is threatening the livelihood and security of millions of hill people and also encroachment into forest protected areas. (As a result of requirement of 70 million m 3 of round wood per year in India by the end of the decade and its transportation, there is fear that this could result in loss of high conservation value forests and biodiversity elsewhere) Increasing demand for water for different sectors such as agriculture, domestic, energy generation, industry that resulted in depletion of water source. The quality of groundwater is being affected due to chemical pollution and due to the ingress of seawater in coastal areas. Absence of an integrated land and water use policy for the country has resulted in a heavy toll of basic natural assets. Coral reef ecosystems are adversely affected by indiscriminate exploitation of corals for production of lime, recreational use and for ornamental trade. Island ecosystems are subjected to pressures of various forms including migration of people from the main land. 33 Environment Management Pollution arising from toxic wastes and non biodegradable consumer articles is on the rise. A large number of industries and other development projects are sited close to heavily populated urban centers, leading to over congestion and over pollution, as also the diversion of population and natural resources from the rural areas. especially in Mechanism to indigenously arrive at a reliable estimate of total greenhouse gas emissions in the country, among various sources such as agriculture, animals, energy production and consumption, forestry and land use change, waste management, etc., is inadequate. More such reliable data, which is indigenously arrived at, is essential for negotiating international law, treaties, protocols and conventions on environment-related problems where developing countries are unduly pressurised. It is often difficult to clearly delineate the causes and consequences of environmental degradation in terms of simple cause effect relationships. The causes and effects are often interwoven in complex webs of socio-economic, technological and implementation factors. The liberalisation of economy in India in the recent past is expected to promote consumerism by throwing a wide array of products with wide options to the consumers. This, in turn, is expected to put pressure on the natural resources in the form of raw materials, and therefore, may deplete the natural resources and cause irreversible damages. Several plant and animal species may become extinct and the non-renewable resources may be exhausted soon depriving the future generations of their benefits. This has been amply witnessed in the past in several western countries where industrial revolution depleted the natural resources for generations to come. Today, these countries are looking towards the developing countries for raw material and 34  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management natural resources. India should learn a lesson from the past experiences of industrial development within India and outside of it. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.6 In your view, is it possible to integrate environmental and developmental concerns? Give at least three examples to support your answer. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit. CASE 1.2 Thirst for palm oil India is a big edible oil consumer. In fact, it is one of the three largest importers of palm oil in the world, along with EU and China. Of these imports, 95% c ome from Indonesia and Malaysia, causing negative social and environmental cons equences in these exporting countries. Conversion of natural forests for cultivating oil palm is a 35 major threat to biodiversity and livelihoods in the tropics. Most of the lowland rainforest on the Indonesian island of Sumatra has already Environment Management It is necessary to have a basic understanding of ecology to adopt the approaches mentioned. We will explain the relationship between Ecology and environment in Section 1.6 36  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management 1.6 Ecology and Environment Ecology is derived from the Greek word eco that means „house‟ and logy means „study‟, this means „the study of one’s house’. It is the study of systems that include interactions among and between the organisms and also their interaction with non living Environment. It deals with the ways in which organisms are adapted to their surroundings, how they make use of these surroundings, and how an area is altered by the presence and activities of organisms. These interactions involve energy and matter. For the survival of the living things constant flow of energy and matter are essential; if not the organisms die. Study of this complex interaction was important and Environment: It is was founded as an academic surroundings that affect subject in 1866 by Ernst an organism during its Hackle. In simple words it is lifetime. surroundings that affect an organism during its lifetime. 1) Environment: It is surroundings that affect an organism during its lifetime. Kinds of organism interactions All organisms are dependent on others to use it for energy and raw material. For example grass is the raw material for mice, rabbits etc. A predator like lion‟s kills and eats zebras as their prey where it gets harmed. One organism may temporarily use another without harming it. For example, in oceans, many sharks have a smaller fish known as remora attached to them. Remoras hitch a ride on sharks and feed on the scraps of food lost by the sharks. This is benefit to the remoras where sharks do not get affected by their presence (commensal interaction). One organism may provide raw material for another for example animals distributes 37 Environment Management plant seeds; plants such as burdock have hooks to which seed is attached. These hooks get caught in the fur of mammals as they pass by the plant. These seeds fall at a considerable distance from parent and at right environmental conditions it grows in to a new plant. However it is useful to look at ecological relationships from a broader perspective. The two other interactions that focus on ecological relationships are community and ecosystem, which we shall discuss next. Community and Ecosystem: A community is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species that live and interact within area at the same time. Species are group of organisms interbreed with the other to produce offspring Population is a group of Species organisms of are same group speciesof organisms interbreed that live in the with same area the at the other same to produce offspring time An ecosystem is a defined space in which interactions take place between a community, with all its complex interrelationships, and the physical environment. An ecosystem, thus, is the basic functional unit and includes both organisms and abiotic environment, each influencing the properties of the other and both necessary for maintenance of life on the earth. The cycling of materials between living and non-living factors is an ecological system or ecosystem Interrelation between the human and environment is shown in the figure below as illustration of interrelation among ecological elements. 38  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Figure 1.1 illustrates the interrelationship among ecological elements. Figure 1.1 Interrelationships of Ecological Elements Sustained life on earth, then, is a characteristic of ecosystems, not of individual organisms or populations. To understand important environmental issues, such as conserving endangered species, sustaining renewable resources, and minimizing the effects of toxic substances, we must understand certain features of ecosystem. 1.6.1 Ecosystem and its Characteristics The biotic and abiotic elements, as shown in Figure 1.1, are interrelated and function in an orderly manner as a definite system. To fully develop the concept of ecosystem, we will look at characteristics of ecosystems from three points of view: 39 Environment Management 1. Structure of ecosystem that consists of nonliving and living parts. Nonliving parts include water, air and rocks. Living community called ecological community is set of interacting species within ecosystem. 2. Processes such as energy flows through it and chemical element cycle within it. 3. Process of succession that changes an ecosystem over a time and can undergo development. Let‟s discuss in detail about these characteristics one after the other. 1.6.2 Structure of Ecosystem From the structural point of view ecosystem comprises of biotic and abiotic components. 1.6.2.1 Biotic components: On the basis of their nutritional (trophic) status, organisms in an ecosystem are broadly divided into autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food such as green plants (with chlorophyll) and certain bacteria, which obtain their energy from the sun and through photosynthesis, produce food. These are usually known as producers (shown in the figure below), since these organisms produce food for all the other organisms. Heterotrophs, known as consumers, depend directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. They are grouped into: Primary consumers: These include herbivorous animals (e.g., rodents, cows, deer, goats, buffaloes, etc.), which depend on green plants for their food. Secondary consumers: These include carnivores and omnivores (e.g., sparrows, crows, foxes, wolves, dogs, etc.) 40  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivores (e.g., lions, tigers, hawks, vultures, etc.), which prey upon herbivores and omnivores. Decomposers and transformers: These are the living components of the ecosystem such as fungi and bacteria. They decompose the dead remains of the producers (i.e., autotrophs) and consumers (i.e., heterotrophs) and convert the complex organic substances into simple organic compounds. These are further broken down by bacteria and converted into inorganic forms, which are taken up by green plants (Mukherjee, 2002). See role of organisms in an ecosystem in Annexure 3 Figure 1.2: Trophic levels in an Ecosystem 1.6.2.2 Abiotic components: Abiotic components of the ecosystem include a variety of organic compounds and basic 41 Environment Management inorganic elements and compounds such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium, carbonates and phosphates. The physical factors such as moisture, wind direction and solar radiation also form part of abiotic components. The amount of non- living components (e.g., calcium, phosphorous and nitrogen) present at any given time is known as standing state. 1.6.2.3 Ecological Communities and Food Chains We have identified an ecological community as the set of interacting species that makes up the living part of ecosystem. It is difficult to know the entire set of species interacting in same place and functioning together. Hence, we confine our definition to particular area where the community consists of all the species whether they are known to interact or not. According to this, example for ecological community would be the animals in a zoo placed in different cages. One way individuals in a community interact is by feeding on one another. The food chain shows how each living thing gets its food from the other to gain energy for its growth and survival. Energy, chemical elements, and some compounds are thus transferred from creature to creature along food chains and in complex cases called food webs. Food web is representation of the interlocking food chains that connect all organisms in an ecosystem. The transfer of energy from the autotrophs (i.e., plants) through a series of organisms that consume and are consumed is called the food chain. At each transfer, a proportion (often as much as 80 or 90%) of the potential energy is lost as heat. Therefore the shorter the food chain the greater is the energy available to that population. Food chains are of two basic types, and these are: 42  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management (i) Grazing food chain, which, starting from a green plant base, goes to grazing herbivores and on to carnivores; (ii) Detritus food chain, which goes from non-living organic matter into micro organisms and then to detritus-feeding organisms (detritivores) and their predators. In an ecosystem, at each level of food chain there is energy transfer from one organism to the other. Hence, the organism is assigned a trophic level based on the number of energy transfer steps to that level. Trophic is derived from a Greek word “Tropho” means “Nourishment”. Trophic level also consists of all those organisms in a food web that have same number of feeding levels away from original source of energy. For example, in an aquatic ecosystem, producers such as algae or phytoplankton constitute the first trophic level. Herbivores such as zooplankton constitute to second trophic level. Third trophic level consists of carnivores such as worms and molluses. Tertiary consumers such as fish constitute to the fourth trophic level. Note that this trophic classification is one of function and not of species as such. In other words, a given species population may occupy one or more than one trophic level according to the source of energy actually assimilated. The energy flow through a trophic level equals the total assimilation (A) at that level, which, in turn, equals the production (P) of biomass and organic matter plus respiration (R). The total amount of organic matter on earth or in any ecosystem or area is called its biomass. 1.6.3. Processes of Ecosystem This section presents Ecological Energy Flow and Chemical element cycles. 1.6.3.1 Ecological Energy Flow 43 Environment Management Many factors can limit the growth of trees and other forms of life, but the ultimate limit on production of organic matter is energy flow. Before determining the maximum possible production of organic matter of any kind, it is necessary to understand the basic concepts of biological or biomass production, energy and energy flow. We will study these, next. Biological production Biological production involves the capture of usable energy and the production of organic compounds in which the energy is stored. This includes all living things and their products. Once an organism has obtained a new organic matter, it can use the energy to move and to produce and reproduce new compounds. The use of energy in organic matter in both heterotrophy and autotrophy is accomplished through respiration. In respiration, an organic compound is combined with oxygen to release energy and produce carbon dioxide and water. There are three measures of production, viz., biomass, energy content and carbon content. Biomass is usually measured as the amount of total organic matter per unit surface area of the earth, for example g/m 2 or metric tons per hectare, MT/ha. The change in biomass over a given period of time is called net production. There are three steps in the production of biomass and its use, as a source of energy, by autotrophs. First, an organism produces organic matter within its body; next, it uses some of this new organic matter as a fuel in respiration and finally, some of the newly produced organic matter is stored for future use. That is to say: Net production = Gross production - Respiration For example, the net production of the tree is energy contained in what is left at the end of the year and includes new wood laid down in the trunk, new buds that will develop into leaves and flowers the next year, and new roots. Net production results in the 44  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management increase of total weight, energy content and stored carbon (Botkin and Keller, 1995). Energy in ecological systems Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The law of entropy or thermodynamics describes the behavior of energy. The first law of thermodynamics, or energy conservation, states that energy may be transformed from one type into another but is neither created nor destroyed. According to the second law of thermodynamics, no process involving an energy transformation will spontaneously occur, unless there is a degradation of the energy from a concentrated form into a dispersed form. Organisms, ecosystems and the entire biosphere possess the essential thermodynamic characteristics. In other words, these can create and maintain a high state of internal order, or a condition of low entropy (i.e., a low amount of disorder or unavailable energy in a system). Low entropy is achieved by continually and effectively dissipating energy of high utility (e.g., light or food) to energy low utility (e.g., heat). Ecosystems and organisms are, accordingly open, non-equilibrium, thermodynamic systems that exchange energy and matter with the environment continuously to decrease internal but increase external entropy. Energy flow Energy flow is the movement of energy through an ecosystem – from the external environment through a series of organisms and back to the external environment. It is one of the fundamental processes common to all ecosystems. Energy enter ecosystem in two paths. One path is energy fixed by organisms is shown in Figure 1.3 given below. 45 Environment Management Figure 1.3: Energy Flow through a food chain Su n Energy MARSH GRASS  GRASSHOPPER  BIRD  HAWK DECOMPOSERS Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Energy flow through a food chain Other path is heat is transferred by the air or water currents or by convention through soils and sediments and warms lining things. For example if warm air passes over a forest, heat energy is transferred from the air to the land and to the organisms. Figure 1.4 illustrates detailed energy flow within an ecosystem. Having studied the concepts of biomass production, energy and energy flow, let us now understand the general relation between biomass (B) and net production (NP). The equations used for measuring biomass are: B2 = B1 + NP Equation 1 NP = B2 - B1 Equation 2 Where B2 is the biomass at the end of the time period; B 1 is the amount of biomass at the beginning of the time period and NP is the change in biomass during the time period. The general production equations are: GP = NP + R Equation 3 NP = GP – R Equation 4 Where GP is the gross production; NP the net production and R is respiration. 46  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Figure 1.4 Energy Flow within an Ecosystem Note that the average of the energy in vegetation is approximately 21 kJ/gm (1 kJ = 1000 J = 0.24 kilocalorie). The kilocalorie (kcal) is the amount of energy required to heat a kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius (from 150 – 160C). To understand the energy flow equations better, let us now work out a problem. Problem: Consider a forest with an annual increase in forest biomass as 1060 g/m 2 per year. This figure is the annual net production rate or net change in biomass. If the biomass at the beginning of the year was measured at 9700 g/m 2, so that the new biomass in the forest at the end of 1 year would be: 47 Environment Management B2 = 9700 g/m 2 + 1060 g/m 2 = 10,760 g/m 2 Since, on average, 1 gm of completely dried vegetation contains about 21 kJ of energy, the net production of this forest at the end of one year in terms of energy would be: NP = 21 kJ/g x 1060 g/m 2/year = 22, 260 kJ/m 2/year About 45% of vegetation in dry matter is carbon, so we can estimate the change in carbon during the year as: NP = 0.45 x 1060 g/m 2 = 477 g/m 2 The total amount of carbon after 1 year would be: B2 = 0.45 x 9700 g/m 2 + 0. 45 x 1060 g/m 2 = 4842 g/m 2 This problem demonstrates how we can calculate the energy and carbon production from the biomass production. Example for energy flow in a stream or river Producers such as algae are relatively low in a stream hence most the primary consumers feed on dead leaves and twigs of vegetation on the land. Other grazing animals move along the surfaces of rocks and scrape off attached algae. Many predators are larvae of land dwelling insects, such as dragon flies. Some animals capture prey from land or air, as in case of trout that catch flying insects. For example, food chain based on external food input occurs in floodplain of the Amazon River basin, where fish feed on fruits and nuts carried in to streams during rainy season. Where herbivores (fish) increases its population from producers alone, yielding an abundant food supply for human populations of the region. Energy Efficiency and Transfer Efficiency 48  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Figure 1.5: Ecological Pyramid Energy flow in an ecosystem is the flow from one tropic level to the other. While energy is getting transferred there is a need for us to understand the efficiency of flow. Transfer of matter and energy to next tropic level is considered as low efficient process. The rule of thumb for ecological trophic energy efficiency is not more than 90% of all energy transferred between trophic levels is lost as heat. Less than is fixed as new tissue. Hence 10% energy and transfer rule was depicted. This can be explained with the help of an ecological pyramid (shown in figure 1.6) Ten % energy and transfer rule Lindemann (1942) has given ten percent law for the transfer of energy from one tropic level to the next. According to the law, during the transfer of organic food from one tropic level to the other only 10 percent of organic matter is stored as flesh and the remaining is lost during transfer or broke down during respiration process. 49 Environment Management Figure 1.7 progressive loss of energy in Food chain Ecological pyramids is a graphical presentation of relation between numbers, biomass and energy content of the primary producers, consumers of first and second orders and so on to top carnivores in the ecosystem. These are of three types of ecological pyramids (illustrated in Figure 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10) 1. Pyramid of numbers: It shows the number of organisms at each trophic level (number/m 2). 2. Pyramid of biomass: It shows the total dry weight or any other suitable measure of the total amount of living matter (g/m 2). 3. Pyramid of energy: It shows the amount of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels 2 (calories/m /year). 50  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Figure 1.8 Pyramid of Numbers in Natural Ecosystem 1) Figure 1.9 Pyramid of Biomass in Aquatic environment Figure 1.10 Pyramid of Energy in Grassland (3) 1.6.3.2 Chemical element cycles There are number of chemical elements cycles that exist in ecosystem some of the cycles like nutrient cycle, water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen and phosphorous cycle that are discussed next.. Nutrient cycling 51 Environment Management Nutrients are atoms and molecules that are essential for the growth of plants and trees. Examples of nutrients that are important to plants are carbon (C), nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and phosphorus (P). Note that nutrients are not the same as energy, which comes originally from the sun and is converted, via photosynthesis, into sugars that feed the plant. The fundamental difference between energy and nutrient transfer is that the pattern of nutrient transfer is basically circular or cyclical. Different nutrients are important to different chemical processes within and between plant cells. For example, plants use nitrogen to synthesize proteins, DNA and many other molecules. Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll, i.e., the molecule that helps plants capture solar energy. Cycling ensures that nutrients do not get stuck somewhere in the soil. For instance, when a plant dies, all its nutrients end up in the soil. Bacteria and fungi break down the plant tissue and free up the nutrients, which other plants growing in the same soil consume. Recyclers (mainly fungi and bacteria) are important in maintaining availability of nutrients in all ecosystems. Physical processes such as air and water movement influence the fate of these nutrients to variable extents. The cycles also differ in scale from local to global, and each is increasingly subject to human impact – deliberate or accidental. The major cycles occurring in nature include the following: Water cycle: This essentially involves physical processes of precipitation, evaporation and water flow with solar energy as the driving force. However, organisms and especially plants modify evaporation and precipitation. The presence of water in oceans and the atmosphere makes this a global cycle. 52  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management Carbon cycle: This is also global but organic processes (e.g., photosynthesis and respiration) play a more dominant role than in the water cycle. Nitrogen cycle: This is perhaps the most complex in that so many organisms are involved in the transformations. Essentially, the only way nitrogen finds it way into the food chain is through nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Note that nitrogen is the limiting nutrient in many ecosystems. Phosphorus cycle: This is simpler than the nitrogen cycle and does not depend on a single class of organisms. Phosphorus is widely present in the earth's crust, although it may often be insoluble and unavailable to plants. Usually, decomposers play a vital role in nutrient cycling in returning small molecules and ions back from the higher trophic levels to the soil, water or air, where they are available for reuse by the primary producers. However, there are certain factors that disrupt nutrient cycling including the following:. Acid rain can change the chemistry of soil and change the nature of certain nutrients.. Deforestation can strip away all the trees and lead to erosion, which washes away all the rich soil that is full of nutrients for future plants.. Natural disturbances such as fire or drought can interrupt the normal cycling of nutrients caused by movements of water. 1.6.4 Succession Ecosystem changes over time and space, then areas without life on earth can be filled with living beings. This changing nature of communities and their ability to recover from disturbance in ecosystem is called ecological succession. There are two stages of succession 53 Environment Management Primary succession which is an initial establishment and development of the ecosystem. Forests that develop on new lava flows or at the edge of a retreating glacier are examples of primary succession. Secondary succession is a reestablishment of an ecosystem. In secondary succession, there are remnants of a previous biological community, including such things as organic matter and seeds in the soil of a forest. By contrast, in primary succession such remnants are non- existent or negligible. A forest that develops on an abandoned pasture or one that grows after a flood or fire is an example of secondary succession. 1.6.4.1 Role of succession in restoration and recovery of ecosystem Studying the patterns of the change in ecosystems in response to natural or human disturbance is an important tool for learning how to restore lands damaged by people. Natural areas are subject to disturbances of many kinds. These disturbances are not always or even usually human-induced. For example, natural disturbances such as storms and fires have always been a part of the environment. Such disturbances have existed for so long that animals and plants have adapted to them to such an extent that the landscape actually benefits in the long run. When fires occur at natural rates and intensities, there are some beneficial effects. For example, trees in unburned forests appear more susceptible to insect outbreaks and disease. Thus, recent ecological research suggests that wilderness depends on change and that ecological succession and disturbances are continual processes that keep the landscape dynamic. Hence Succession plays an important role in restoration and recovery of ecosystem. 1.6.4.2. Feature of succession 54  Unit 1: Principles of Environment Management One feature of succession is that the biological community changes. In early stages, biomass increases and so does the diversity of life forms. In middle stages of succession, there are many species and sizes of trees and a variety of other patterns that occur. Gross and net productions change during succession in that while the gross production increases, the net production decreases. Chemical cycling also changes and the organic material in the soil increases, as does the amount of chemical elements in the soil and trees. What the foregoing discussion shows is that natural processes could restore a damaged habitat into its previous or even into an improved state and that the environment overall is self-sufficient. However, the balance that is maintained is delicate. Removal or addition of certain factors, for example, can disrupt this balance and the result is an imbalance in the ecosystem. We will touch upon this, next. 1.6.5 Effect of imbalance on the ecosystem In most cases, a habitat is in balance, with the right number of producers, herbivores and carnivores to keep it going. However, changes such as the introduction or removal of predators in a habitat, can throw the environment out of balance. Disturbances to biotic factors and abiotic factors will lead to environmental resistance. This will lead to an exponential decrease in population of ecosystems that will cause a high extinction rate of biodiversity. If this condition is severe, the ecology of the ecosystems will be permanently damaged. The imbalance in the ratio of producers, consumers and decomposers also distorts the pattern of energy flow through the food chain and food web, disrupting the ecological food pyramid. When the ecological food pyramid is disrupted, insufficient consumption of food leaves organisms deprived of energy, thus affecting the organism's metabolism. This leads to mass starvation and mortality in world population. Also, this leads to the extinction of particular species, while their predators dominate resulting in ecological niche in ecosystems 55 Environment Management change. Having studied some of the basic concepts of and the importance of preserving the ecosystem and the environment, let us now examine the tool necessary to attain a sustainable approach to environmental management. In order to understand that „How much nature do we have, compared with usage‟, let us take up the discussion on ecological footprint. 1.6.6 Ecological Footprint The ecological footprint measures the demand upon our natural resources and our available bio-capacity to generate resources and provide services. In order to achieve this; a survey is made in assessing the biologically productive land and marine area required to generate the enough resources for growing population and also work out the corresponding waste. At the end of the survey the data is categorized for food, carbon, housing, goods