Module 1: Nature of the Curriculum PDF

Module 1 Nature of the Curriculum At the end of this module, the pre- service teachers (PST) are expected to: 1. Define curriculum from different perspectives 2. Differentiate the types of curriculum 3. Describe components and purpose of curriculum 4. Explain...

Module 1 Nature of the Curriculum At the end of this module, the pre- service teachers (PST) are expected to: 1. Define curriculum from different perspectives 2. Differentiate the types of curriculum 3. Describe components and purpose of curriculum 4. Explain the nature and importance of curriculum in schools The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely a listing of subjects to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to be the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well. In the Philippines, recommendations of several educational initiatives like the Philippine Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE), Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education (SOUTELE) and the Philippine Commission for Educational Reforms (PCER) focused on curricular renewal or reforms. The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) became the anchor of reforms in education from the basic to higher education. Philippine Professional Standards for Teacher (recent)(Purita P. Bilbao, et.al. 2008) Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common definition of “curriculum”. Because of this the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the overall track upon which Roman chariots raced. The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary defines 1 curriculum as courses taught in the schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum with the syllabus while few regards it as all the teaching-learning experiences which the students encounter while in school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as cultural perspectives. (Purita Bilbao, et.al. 2015) Here are some of them. Some Definition of Curriculum 1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence. (Daniel Tunner, 1980) 2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980) 3. The content of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987) 4. The curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past or present professional practice”. (Hass, 1987) 5. It is a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible educational and other schooling ends and objectives. (Grundy, 1987) 6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by the students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland, 1992) 2  7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992) Curriculum from Different Points of View Traditional Points of View of Curriculum In the early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepare by teachers for the students to learn”. It was synonymous to the “course of the study” and “syllabus”. Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education. Arthur Bestor an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language. Joseph Schwab views that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus, in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subjects areas in basic curriculum such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages and many more. Phoenix said that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Curriculum should consist only of knowledge which comes from disciplines which is the sole source. 3 Progressive Points of Views of Curriculum To progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He believed that effective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from actions but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers” Smith, Stanley and Shores defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting” Marsh and Willis view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools according to Allan Glatthorn (2000) 1. Recommended curriculum (proposed by scholars and professional organization. The curriculum may come from a national agency like Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in education. 2. Written curriculum (appears in school, district, division or country documents.) 4  This includes documents, course study or syllabi handed down to schools, districts, division, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. Examples: Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) and written lesson plan of each classroom teacher made up of objectives and planned activities of the teacher. 3. Taught curriculum (what teachers implement or deliver in the classroom and schools) These are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the learner with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers. 4. Supported curriculum These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning. 5. Assessed curriculum This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end of teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. Assessment tools like pencil-and paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized. 6. Learned curriculum (what the students actually learned and what is measured) This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor. 7. Hidden curriculum is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes? 5 Examples: Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors make up the hidden curriculum. Components of Curriculum Elements/Components of the Curriculum 1. Aims, goals and objectives 2. Subject matter/content 3. Learning experiences 4. Evaluation approaches When translated into questions: 1. What is to be done? 2. What subject matter is to be included? 3. What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed? 4. What methods and instruments will be used to assess the result of the curriculum? Component 1 – Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives Based on the Philippine Constitution of 1987, all schools shall aim to: 1. inculcate patriotism and nationalism 2. foster love of humanity 3. promote respect for human rights 4. appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country 5. teach the rights and duties of citizenship 6. strengthen ethical and spiritual values 7. develop moral character and personal discipline 6 8. encourage critical and creative thinking 9. broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act of 1982) In the elementary level, schools through their curricula should aim to:  provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing society;  provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of and responsiveness to the changes in the society;  promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and love for the nation and the people to which he belongs; and  promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and prepare the learner to engage in honest and gainful work. Aims of Secondary Education In high school or secondary level, educational curricula aim to:  continue to promote the objectives of elementary education; and  discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to equip them with skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary schooling. Aims of Tertiary Education The different courses should aim to:  provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor;  train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for national development; develop the profession that will provide leadership for the nation; and  advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life and respond effectively to changing society. 7  Based on the mandate of the constitution, each school therefore should be guided by its vision, mission and goals and its curricula should also revolve around these. The school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts including curricula should be directed. Examples of a school’s vision 1. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skills and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest. 2. Commits to the Exemplary Christian Education for Life and responsive to the need of the total person and the world. The school’s mission statement, spells out how it intends to carry out its Vision. The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the student will become after having been educated over a certain period of time. Examples of school’s mission 1. To produce globally competitive lifelong learners. 2. Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the upliftment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality instruction, updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times. The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad statements or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may include the learners, the society and the fund of knowledge. Examples of school goals 1. Build a strong foundation of skill and concepts 2. Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the university and community. 8  In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two ways: 1. explicit formulation of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process, and 2. intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learner. Domains of Objectives according to Benjamin Bloom and his Associates. These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains and each domain is composed of specific skills, attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy of levels. Cognitive Domains (Bloom et al 1956) – domain of thought process 1. Knowledge – recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories and principles. 2. Comprehension – ability to grasp the meaning of material. 3. Application – the ability to use learned materials in new and concrete situation. 4. Analysis – ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its organizational structure maybe understood. 5. Synthesis – ability to put parts together to form a new whole. 6. Evaluation – ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria. Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) Domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation 1. Receiving – students’ willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or classroom activities. 2. Responding – active participation on the part of the students. Valuing – concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to particular phenomena, object or behavior. 3. Organization – concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system. 9  4. Characterization by a value or value complex – developing a lifestyle from a value system. Psychomotor Domain (Simpson 1972) – domain of the use of psychomotor attributes 1. Perception – use of sense organs to guide motor activities. 2. Set – refers to the readiness to take particular type of action. 3. Guided response – concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills. 4. Mechanism – responses have become habitual. 5. Complex overt responses – skillful performance and with complex movement patterns. 6. Adaptation – skill well developed that the ability to modify is very easy. 7. Origination – refers to creating new movements patterns to fit the situation. Component 2 – Curriculum Content or Subject Matter Content (subject centered view)  Is more than simply information to be learned in school.  Another term for knowledge  Is a compendium of facts, concepts generalization, repository of accumulated discoveries and invention of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world? Content (learner centered view)  Relates to knowledge to the individual’s personal and social world and how he or she defines reality  According to Gerome Bruner, “is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experiences”. Examples: 1. Communication arts – include skills in listening, speaking, writing and reading as well as the effective use of language in daily living. 10  2. Mathematics – includes numeric and computational skills, geometry and measurement, algebra, logic and reasoning. 3. Science – includes all branches of the natural sciences, exploration and discovery dealing with natural phenomena and the use of scientific method of investigation. 4. Social Studies – include basic elements of Geography, History, Sociology, Anthropology, Economics, Civics, Political Science and Psychology. 5. Music – includes basic music theory, practice in listening, singing, playing musical instruments and music preparation. 6. Physical Education – includes health and physical fitness, individual and team sports, spectatorship and wise use of leisure. 7. Vocational Education – includes psychomotor and manipulative skills in basic crafts and trades, designs, work ethic and appreciation of manual productive work. Criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the Curriculum 1. Self-sufficiency – the prime guiding principle for content selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency but in the most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less learners’ effort but results and effective learning outcomes (Scheffler, 1970). 2. Significance – when content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.  If will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitudes.  If will develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of the learner. If the cultural aspects will be considered. 3. Validity – subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the content that was originally valid continues to be. 11  4. Interest – students’ interest should be considered and adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social value of their interest. 5. Utility – usefulness maybe either be for the present or the future. Questions like “will I use it in my future job?” Or “Will it add meaning to my life or develop my human potential?” Or “Will the subject matter be useful in solving my current problem?” 6. Learnability - subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of the experiences of the learner. 7. Feasibility – can the subject matter or content be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should be considered within the context of the existing reality in schools, in society and government. Other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content. Subject matter or content can be selected for use if these are: 1. frequently and commonly used in daily life; 2. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of the students; 3. valuable in meeting the needs and the competencies of a future career; 4. related with other subjects’ areas; and 5. important in the transfer of learning Different principles suggested by Palma (1992) in organizing or putting together the different learning contents. 1. Balance – curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of particular learning area or discipline. 2. Articulation – when each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the nest, glaring gaps and wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. 3. Sequence – is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher level. 12  4. Integration – the horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be related to one another. 5. Continuity – the constant repetition, review and reinforcement of learning. Component 3 – Curriculum Experiences Some guides for the selection and use of teaching methods to implement the curriculum 1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives into action. 2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives, the learner and skill of the teacher. 3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual. 4. In the choice of teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered. 5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three domains: cognitive, affective & psychomotor. 6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of teaching methods. Component 4 – Curriculum Evaluation According to Worthen and Sanders, (1987) all curricula to be effective must have the elements of evaluation. 1. Curriculum evaluation – refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the curriculum. 2. Evaluation – meeting the goals and matching them with the intended outcomes. Stufflebeam’s CIPP model – the most widely used of model of evaluation. 13 Content – refers to the environment of the curriculum Input – refers to the ingredients of the curriculum which include the goals, instructional strategies, the learners, the teachers, the content and all the materials needed. Process – refers to the ways and means how the curriculum has been implemented. Product – indicates if the curriculum accomplishes its goals. Different methods which can be utilized in determining the effectiveness of the curriculum 1. Diagnostic 2. Placement 3. Formative & summative evaluation 4. Norm-referenced measurement 5. Criterion-referenced measurement Suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation 1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. 2. Collect or gather the information. 3. Organize the information. 4. Analyze information. 5. Report the information. 6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustment to be made. Guide Questions 1. What is curriculum? 2. What are the key components of curriculum? 3. Can a school curriculum succeed without a clear vision? 14 Answers to Guide Questions Question 1. Curriculum is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by the students with the guidance of the school. Question 2. The key components of curriculum are (a) curriculum aims, goals and objectives (b) curriculum content or subject matter (c) curriculum experience and; (d) curriculum evaluation. Question 3. School curriculum cannot succeed without a clear vision because school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts including curricula should be directed. Key Points/Summary 1. The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely a listing of subjects to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to be the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well. 2. In every teacher’s classroom, not all curricula maybe present at one time. Many of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and a teacher may or may not be able to predict its influence on Learning. All of these have significant role on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning, and have direct implication to the life of the learner. 3. For most curricula, the major components or elements are (1) aims, goals and objectives; (2) subject matter/content; (3) learning experiences and (4) evaluation approaches. When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the following: a. What is to be done? b. What subject matter is to be included? 15  c. What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed? d. What methods and instruments will be used to assess the result of curriculum? References and Supplementary Materials Books 1. Bilbao, Porita P. et.al. (2008) Curriculum Development. Metro Manila Lorimar Publishing Inc. 2. Corpuz, Brenda B. et/al. (2015) Curriculum Development for Teachers. Metro Manila Lorimar Publishing Inc. 16 Assessment 1 Name Course, Year and Section Direction: Write the correct answer in the space provided before the number. 1 point per correct item (10pts.) ___________________1. It is a compendium of facts, concepts, generalization, repository of accumulated discoveries and invention of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of his world. ___________________2. This relates to knowledge to the individuals and social world and how he or she defines reality. ___________________3. It is a curriculum model of stufflebeam which refers to the environment of the curriculum. ___________________4. This is a written document that systematically describes goals, planned objectives, content, learning activities and evaluation procedures. ___________________5. It is a type of curriculum that appears in school, district, division or country documents. ___________________6. He views curriculum as permanent studies where the rules of rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. ___________________7. He said that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. ___________________8. According to these people, a listing of school subjects, syllabi course study, and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. 17 __________________9. It is a type of curriculum what teachers implement or deliver in the classroom and school. __________________10. This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum __________________11. It is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. __________________12. A curriculum theorist who views that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. __________________13. In a curriculum, these are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. __________________14. This refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process and Product of the curriculum. __________________15. It is a psychomotor domain which refers to creating new movements patterns to fit the situation. 18 Assessment 2 Curriculum from Two Points of View: Traditional or Progressive In the courses that you are currently taking, identify practices that can be considered as following the traditional orientation and those that are progressive in orientation. Give examples or illustrations. Points of View of Curriculum Illustrative Examples of Practices Traditional Curricular Practices Progressive Curricular Practices 19  Module 2 Foundations of Curriculum At the end of this module, the pre- service teacher (PST) are to: 1. Describe the foundation of curriculum Development 2. Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development 3. Compare and contrast the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism 4. Identify the application of behaviorist, cognitivist, constructivist and humanist principles in the classroom 5. Examine how history and society influenced curriculum Four Educational Philosophies According to Ornstein and Hunks (2004) and their relations to curriculum 1. Perennialism Aims of Education- To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect Role of Education- Teachers help student think with reason. Based on the Socratic methods of oral exposition or recitation. Explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional values. Focus in the Curriculum- Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant Curriculum Trends – Use of great books and return to liberal arts. 2. Essentialism Aims of Education – To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent person. Role of Education – The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of specialization. Focus in the Curriculum – Essential skill of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language. 20  Curriculum Trends – Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy. 3. Progressivism Aims of Education – To promote democratic and social living Role of Education – Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who actively learn by doing. Focus in the Curriculum – Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive. Curriculum is focused on students’ interest, human problems and affairs. Curriculum Trends – School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic education. 4. Reconstructionism Aims of Education – To promote and reconstruct society, education for change. Role of Education - Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects including research. Focus in the Curriculum – Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and international interest. Curriculum Trends – Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global education. Historical Foundations of Curriculum Different curriculum theorist and how they view curriculum from a historical perspective. 1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) Presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students’ need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. Objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and sequenced. 21  2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) Viewed curriculum as a science. It gives emphasis on students’ needs. The listing of objectives and matching these with corresponding activities ensures that the content or subject matter is related to objectives. 3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered. The purpose of curriculum is child development and growth. The project method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and student plan the activities. 4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes. 5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest. 6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) Believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. To him curriculum is always related to instruction. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum. Three Groups of Learning Theories 1. Behaviorist Psychology Well-known curricularists are Edward Lee Thorndike, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura. Robert Gagne’ hierarchical learning or sets of behavior and five learning outcomes became classic examples. These learning outcomes include: 22 1. intellectual skills or “know how” to categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and problem solving 2. information or “knowing what” knowledge about facts, dates and names; 3. cognitive strategies or learning skills; 4. motor skills; and 5. attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences. To the behaviorist, learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. The method is introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by another educational psychologist as simplistic mechanical. 2. Cognitive Psychology How do learners store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusion? To the cognitive theorist, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning. 3. Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human potential. They view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after behaviorism and cognitive development. It is built on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously recognizing his or her perceptions. Abraham Maslow’s theory of human needs for self-actualizing persons and Carl Rogers’ non-directive lives, are also fall under the humanistic psychology. 23  Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process not the products; personal needs not the subject matter; psychological meaning and environment situations. In summary, psychology has great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not machines and the mind are not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human beings. Social Foundation of Education The schools are the only one of the many institutions that educate the society. The home, the family, community likewise educate the people in the society. But schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and world. In order for the schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and education for all. Schools and society are persons/symbols that contribute as source of change, as agents of change, and knowledge as an agent of change. John Dewey considered two fundamental elements- schools and civil society- to be the major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Alvin Toffler wrote the Future Shock and believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future. He suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it. He also foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age. There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities. 24 Legal Foundation of Curriculum The 1987. Philippine Constitution ARTICLE XIV Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture, and Sports EDUCATION The State must provide quality education for all and does everything to reach out the farthest community to educate each citizen of the country for free as much as possible. Provision for formal and informal education in all kinds of citizen must be offered to respond to the needs of each individual and the society. All educational institutions public, private, sectarian or non-sectarian must include the study of constitutions and religion to promote nationalism, patriotism and inculcate values. Teaching and non-teaching personnel have their own role to be educator on their own way. Everybody is free to choose the course to be taken up in college as long as it is within its ability and capacity. LANGUAGE The national language of the Philippines is Filipino and it must be learned further than other language evolves within the country. English is provided to facilitate instruction and further communication. Other languages such as Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Researches must lead to development and preservation of Filipino and other languages. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Science and technology are essential for national development and progress. The State has to give priority to research and development, invention, innovation, and their utilization; and to science and technology education, training, and services. It must support indigenous, appropriate, and self- reliant scientific and technological capabilities, and their application to the country’s productive systems and national life. Guide Questions 25  1. How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? 2. Is there a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum? 3. How historical foundation contribute to curriculum development? Answer to Guide Questions 1. In organizing a curriculum, the groups of learning theories should always be considered to enhance learning. 2. The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspiration. At the same time society should also imbibe the changes brought about by formal institution called schools. 3. The historical foundations are useful in identifying the problem, issues and perspective. An examination of all the historical foundations of the curriculum points up threads of continuity as well as instances of rejection of precedents and illustrates the way in which the curriculum, at any point in time, is also a production that time. Furthermore, history provides opportunities to refine methods that have been used in the past to be applied in the current trends of curriculum development. Key Points/ Summary: 1. It is vital that one should understand first the philosophical, psychological, social and historical foundations of curriculum development in order to make or develop curriculum that would be applicable and relevant in today’s teaching -learning process taking into consideration the changes that the process or the curriculum itself has undertaken from the past to present in order to meet the changing needs of the learner. 2. Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or learning environment. 26  3. The historical foundations will show to us the chronological development along a timeline. Reading the materials will tell us that curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “The Curriculum”. 4. Phycology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. 5. The foundation upon which are educational philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations and societal influences. All of these foundations are interrelated to each. References and Supplementary Materials Books 1. Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., and R. B. Javier (2008). Curriculum development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. 2. Dayagbil, Filomena T. et.al. (2015). Curriculum Development for Teachers. Quezon City, Metro Manila Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Online Supplementary Material 1. © 2015 JaCite this article as: Alvior, Mary G. (January 9, 2015). Four Major Foundations of Curriculum and their Importance in Education [Blog Post]. In SimplyEducate.Me. Retrieved from https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/09/4- major-foundations-of-curriculum-and-their-importance-in-education/nuary 9 M. G. Alvior 27 Assessment 1 Name Course, Year and Section Explore the Web (by groups) Direction: 1. Form a five-member group. Choose a group leader. With all the group members, search two outstanding personalities in the cluster of Curriculum Foundations who contributed to curriculum development. Write their biographies. You may find other persons not included in the list given in this lesson. Submit in group the biographies of the identified persons not less than 3 pages, short-sized bond paper, with the list of reference at the end. Cluster 1- Philosophical Foundations Cluster 2- Historical Foundations Cluster 3- Psychological Foundations Cluster 4- Sociological Foundations. 28 Assessment 2 Name Course, Year and Section Direction: 1. Tag the Person. What significant contribution can you recall about this person? a. William Kilpatrick b. Carl rogers c. John Dewey d. Abraham Maslow e. Franklin Bobbit 2. Reflect on the following questions. Be précised. a. Identify which among the foundations of curriculum, has influenced what you have learned in school as a college student? b. How will the thinking of Abraham Maslow influence you teaching practice in the future? c. Do you agree with Alvin Toffler? 29  Module 3 Phases and Process of Curriculum Development At the end of this module, the pre- service teachers (PST) are expected to: 1. Demonstrate knowledge of curriculum planning, design and organization, implementation, evaluation, and improvement. 2. Analyze what is change process in the curriculum implementation. 3. Expanded knowledge about different curriculum evaluation model. 4. Justify the need for either change or innovation on matters pertaining to curriculum. 5. Prepare developmentally-sequenced lesson plans with well-aligned learning outcomes and competencies based on curriculum requirements. A. Curriculum Planning What is curriculum planning? Curriculum planning is the process of structuring academic experiences, using expertise knowledge of the teacher. It is the activity which teachers get involved in before the actual implementation. It is the process whereby the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a particular population of learners is created. It is a continuous process which involves activities characterized by interrelationships among individuals and groups as they work together in studying, 30 planning, developing and improving the curriculum, which is the total environment planned by the school. Why Plan in the First Place?  Decide how and where to set priorities in the use of limited human economic resources.  Decide how to accomplish not only your short-range goals but also your medium and long-range goals.  Build on the strong and successful parts of the program. As well as to identify and improve the weak parts.  Reach agreement in the school community about what to do and how to do it. What a Good Planning Process is?  It is organized thinking that helps in deciding what needs to be done, how it will happen, and who will do it.  It is the setting of priorities in the use of resources: people, money, time and materials.  It is trying to anticipate the future.  It is adapting and modifying steps or processes until they work for you.  It is using leadership to motivate people and to coordinate their activities  It is reflecting on what has been planned already and how it is working.  It includes the periodic recording of planning decision for future reference. What a Good Planning Process Should Do?  It should stimulate change and improvement.  It should help you figure out what will happen and how it should happen.  It should share awareness about what is being done and why.  It should build a trail of activities over time so you can look at what has worked well and what has not.  It should produce a blueprint, road map, or recipe to be used  It should decrease fear about the process of change and its result. 31 Importance of Curriculum Planning “Unplanned teaching and learning is a recipe of wasting time”  Curriculum planning develop well-coordinated, quality teaching, learning and assessment programs, which build students’ knowledge, skills and behaviors in the disciplines, as well as their interdisciplinary and/or physical, personal and social capabilities.  Curriculum planning ensure:  A shared vision  Shared understandings and a common language in the school community  Optimum coverage of all domains within the curriculum  Continuity of learning between domains across year level  The full range of learning needs of the students are addressed  Students are given opportunities to develop deep understanding  Cohesiveness in teaching, learning and assessment practices  Elimination of repetition of learning activities without depth or breadth across levels  Improved student learning outcomes The need for exactness and particularity in making decisions about ends and means demands scientific curriculum planning. The curriculum is likely to be a good one if there is good curriculum planning; and conversely, the curriculum is likely to be mediocre one if there is a mediocre curriculum planning. Bases of Curriculum Planning  History  Philosophy  Social forces  Psychology  Religion 32   Contemporary Issues Lack of Curriculum Planning and Framework will result to:  Sari-sari (hodgepodge)  Pira-piraso (piemal)  Tagpi-tagpi (patchwork)  Sabog (lack of focus)  Malabo (vague)  Lakas ng kutob (gutfeel)  Hula-hula (hunches)  Gaya-gaya (patterned from an existing model)  Bahala na (by chance)  Patama-tama (non-deliberate) Participants of curriculum planning get involved in variety of activities such as:  Discussing common problems  Making decisions  Developing a functional philosophy  Studying learners and the environment  Keeping up to date with the knowledge  Studying ways to improve instructions  Carrying research and evaluation 2 Factors in Curriculum Planning 1. Identifying relevant substantive decisions at increasing levels of specifity and precision 2. Checking for consistency between and among the ends-and-means decisions by a two-way process of derivation and evaluation at each stage and by referring to data sources for basic information. Characteristics of a Curriculum Planner 33  1. Openminded  Is an indispensable characteristic in those who plan the curriculum.  Understanding of the values of the past practices and of school community and tradition is important  Must analyze and evaluate all aspects of the program of the schools to make certain in providing the best program. And to avoid hindering the acceptance of new ideas. 2. Willing to Listen  Well-founded criticism on the curriculum and education must be listened to by the curriculum planners  Remediation of the curriculum ills strengthened the school program. 3. Ready to Adapt  There is a wisdom adopting relevant foreign educational practices and must resist change and experimentation  Curriculum leaders should critically and thoroughly educational practices in other countries seeking new plans, methods, and programs that will be useful in improving the curriculum of our country. The Use of Research in Curriculum Planning Research affects many curricula in many ways like for example: 1. Sounds proposal presented for considerations, (hypotheses to be tested by actual tryout in school programs) 2. People who engaged in curriculum planning can do their jobs effectively because they are aware of the latest or least review, related studies about curriculum change and etc. B. Curriculum Design and Organization Approaches to Curriculum Design 34  Child or Learner-Centered Approach – this approach to curriculum design Is based in the underlying philosophy that the child is the center of the educational process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The curriculum is also built upon the learner’s knowledge, skills, learning and potentials. From its design how should a child-centered or learner-centered curriculum be approached? Let us consider these: 1. A new respect for the child is fundamental. 2. A new freedom of action is provided. 3. The activity is divided into units of work. 4. The recognition of the need for using and exploring many media for self- discovery and self-direction is embraced. Subject-Centered Approach – anchored on the curriculum design which prescribes different and separate subjects into one broad field, this approach considers the following: 1. The primary focus is the subject matter. 2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which are detached from life. 3. The continuing pursuit of learning outside the school is not emphasized. Learning should only take place inside the classroom. 4. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems in living. Problem-Centered Approach – this approach is based on a curriculum design which assumes that in the process of living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as individuals. This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs: 35  1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems, thus they become independent learners. 2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation in different activities. 3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems and in seeking solutions. The learners are considered problem solvers. While the three curricular design approaches are distinct from each other, most practitioners: teachers, principals, school managers utilize the three in their design. Each design approach gives the school a special character. However, most implementers meld the designs in their school. No such case, it would be difficult to identify distinctly each one specific design. Types of Curriculum Design Crafting a curriculum is like writing a lesson plan. It is like making something with the different components, and putting them together in a very creative way. It is a task that all teachers should know and understand, or better still, to know how to craft one. A curriculum can be organized either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal organization means, that the direction of the curriculum elements is sideways. For example: 1. The subject social studies move horizontally along history, geography, civics and culture. 2. Taking contents in mathematics and relating these to science is also an example of horizontal curriculum design. Using a vertical arrangement or sequence of curricular elements follows a vertical design. Examples: 1. In social studies content, putting the “family” ahead of the topic “community” is vertical articulation 36  2. In science the bigger topic on “living things” comes ahead of the topic on “plants” and “animals”. Curriculum design may also follow the following structures. 1. Subject-centered design  This model focuses on the content of the curriculum.  Corresponds mostly to the textbook, written for the specific subject.  Schools divide the school hours to different subjects such as reading, grammar, literature, mathematics, science, history and geography.  In the Philippines, our curricula in any level are also divided in different subjects or courses. Most of the schools using this kind of structure aim for excellence in the subject matter content. Example of subject-centered curriculum a. Subject design – what subjects are you teaching? What subjects are you taking? These are two sample questions to which the teacher and the learner can easily give an answer. It is so because they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.  Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other laymen.  According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it is easy to deliver. Complementary books are written and support instructional materials are commercially available.  In the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary education is fewer than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree program being pursued.  The drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized. It stresses so much the content that it forgets about students’ natural tendencies, interests and experiences. The tendency of the teacher is to pour in so much 37  content to the learner so that the students become simply the empty vessel that receives the information or content. b. Discipline design – this curriculum model is related to the subject design. However, while subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific content of their fields. Example: Students in history should learn the subject matter like historians, students in biology should learn how biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics should learn how mathematicians learn.  The discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the elementary or secondary levels. So, from the subject-centered curriculum, curriculum moves higher to a discipline when the students are more mature and are already moving towards their career path or disciplines as science, mathematics, psychology, humanities, history and others. Discipline becomes the degree program. c. Correlation design – this comes from a core, correlated curriculum design that links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another but each subject maintains its identity. Example: English literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the historical period are being studied. The same is true when science becomes the core, mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics and biology. Another example is literature as the core and art, music, history, geography will be related to it. To use correlated design, teachers should come together and plan their lessons cooperatively. 38  d. Broad field design/ interdisciplinary – broad field or interdisciplinary design is a variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects and integrate the contents that are related to each other. Example: Subjects such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and history are fused into one subject called social studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling and composition. Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad field design draws around themes and integration. 2. Learner-Centered Design – among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however more concern has been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content has become the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum. Here are some examples of the learner-centered designs. a. Child-centered design – this design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseeau, Pestallozi and Froebel.  The curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered as a passive individual but as one who engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create; construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the teachers and the environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select content and do activities together. Learning is a product of the child’s interaction with the environment. b. Experience-centered design – this design is similar to the child-centered design. Although, the child remains to be the focus, experience-centered 39  design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre- planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free.  Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher, in a school where experience-centered curriculum is provided, different learning centers are found, time is flexible and children are free to make options.  Activities revolve around different emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple intelligence theory blends well with experience-centered design curriculum. c. Humanistic design – the key lead personalities in this curriculum design were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self- actualization explains that a person who achieves this level: 1. is accepting of self, others and nature; 2. is simple, spontaneous and natural; 3. is open to different experiences; 4. possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate, among many others.  Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can embrace self- directed learning by improving self-understanding and basic attitudes to guide behavior.  In humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills. 3. Problem-Centered Design – generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the learners. Various problems 40 are given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others. In this curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students. Two examples are given for the problem-centered design curriculum. These are: a. Life-situation design – what makes this design unique is that the contents are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem area clearly. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the pressing immediate problems of the society and the students’ existing concerns are utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain the individual’s social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations increases the relevance of the curriculum. b. Core design – in centers on general education and the problems are based on common human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, they presented ways on how to proceed following a core design of a curriculum as follows: 1. The problem is selected by either the teacher or students. 2. A group consensus is made to identify the important problems and interest of the class. 3. Problems are selected on the basis of developed criteria for selection. 4. The problem is clearly stated and defined. 5. Areas of study are decided, including dividing the class by individual or group interests. 6. Needed information is listed and discussed. 7. Resources for obtaining information are listed and discussed. 8. Information is obtained and organized. 41  9. Information is analyzed and interpreted. 10. Tentative conclusions are stated and tested. 11. A report is presented to the class on an individual or group basis. 12. Conclusions are evaluated. 13. New avenues of exploration toward further problem solving are examined. THE SIX ELEMENTS OF A CURRICULUM 1. Who teaches? – The Teacher Quality Education requires quality teachers. Good teachers bring a shining light into the learning environment. They are ideal companions of the learners. With the advances in communication technology, good teachers are needed to sort out the information from the data that surround the learners. Good teachers are needed to sort out the knowledge from the information but even more important, excellent teachers are needed to sort the wisdom from the knowledge. Institutions are as good as its teachers. Hence, the right individuals who are expected to be recruited are those with excellent and relevant preparation. These teachers should be given support with their continuing development in order to keep abreast with the changing demands of a learning society. 2. Who do the teachers teach? - the Learners The learners are at the center stage in the educative process. They are the most important factors in the learning environment. There is no teaching without them. Hence, teachers should understand and accept the learner’s diverse background. Each one of them is a unique individual. They come from different sectors of society of different cultural background, socio-economic profile, orientation and varied experiences. Considering the domain of diversity of learners will allow the individual learner to develop his multiple intelligences at his own pace. Hence, their needs should be addressed and be met that’s why teachers are to provide learning opportunities and varied experiences. 3. What do the teachers teach? – Knowledge, Skills, Values 42  “To help the learners cope with rapid changes to understand and to succeed in the new work in the workplace, we must design a curriculum oriented to tomorrow.” It should be remembered that what students learn will be obsolete in ten years, and half of what they need to know to succeed in work and in life has not yet been fully developed and will have to be learned as they go along in the future. Calculators and typewriters are made obsolete by computers and the next generation will see these being replaced. And so, the value of the educational process lies not just in what they learn, but how they learn, and how good they will be in continuing to learn after they leave school. The learning episode influences the teaching-learning process. The teacher is expected to prepare his syllabus or a course of study as his vehicle for instruction. The learning goals, instructional procedures and content must be clearly explained to students. There must be a balance of theory and practice. Learners’ sustained interest in the subject should be made meaningful and relevant. 4. How do teachers teach? – Strategies and Methods Researchers show that there is no best strategy that could work in a million of different student background and characteristics. However, for teachers to teach effectively, they must use appropriate methodologies, approaches and strategies “capped with compassionate and winsome nature”. Teachers should select teaching methods, learning activities and instructional materials or resources appropriate to learners and aligned to objectives of the lesson. Situations should be created to encourage learners to sue higher order thinking skills. Good teachers utilize information derived from assessment to improve teaching and learning and adopt a culture of excellence. 5. How much of the teaching was learned? – Performance When teachers teach, they formulate objectives to be accomplished by the learners. A curriculum should be clear at the beginning with what knowledge, skills and values should be developed by the learners. These are the guiding posts of the 43 teachers. These are stated in behavioral terms which will guide the actions of the one who teach. At the end of the teaching act, it is necessary to find out if the objectives set were accomplished. In curriculum, we call this the learning outcomes. These learning outcomes indicate the performance of both the teachers and the learners. Learning outcomes are the product performance of the learners as a result of teaching. Performance is a feature of a curriculum that should be given emphasis. The curriculum is deemed to be successful if the performance of the learners is higher than the targets set. However, if the performance of the learners is low then it follows that the curriculum has failed. A good curriculum is one that results in high or excellent performance. 6. With whom do we teach? - Community Partners Teaching is a collaborative undertaking. While teachers are the focal point in the learning process, they must draw upon the resources if their environment and if their partners to be effective. Teachers must establish relationship with parents, NGO’s and their stakeholders. Partnership is a means and not an end to be pursued in itself. An absence of partnership often means a poor definitions of education ends. However, as society changes, teachers will have a new beginning, an opportunity to recast their role in their communities, to change their attitude to their communities, to change the attitude of their communities and societies about them. Dimensions and Principles of Curriculum Design Curriculum designs provide clear relationship between and among the different elements of the curriculum: objectives, contents, activities, and evaluation. Considering all of these elements, as a curriculum designer, one has to look into the parameters or dimensions upon which a design can be crafted. Let us always focus on the four elements of a curriculum as bases in identifying what to be considered in designing a curriculum. Many curricularists suggest to view a design from the following dimensions: scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation and balance. 44 Dimension of Curriculum Design  SCOPE – Tyler in Ornstein (2004) defines scope as all the content, topics, learning experiences and organizing threads comprising the educational plan. Scope does not only refer the cognitive content, but also the affective and psychomotor content. It is the depth, as well as the breadth of these contents. The terms broad, limited, simple, general are few of the words that can describe the scope. With the limitless knowledge that abounds, scope provides boundaries in curriculum as it applies to the different educational levels. It is here where the decision-making skill of the teacher is needed. Curriculum is time- bound; hence the appropriate scope should be provided such that the curricular coverage should not be too much nor too minimal. Other considerations in the determination of the scope should includ4e time. Diversity and maturity of the learners, complexity of content, and level of education. Scope refers to the coverage of the curriculum. The scope of the curriculum can be divided into chunks called units, sub- units, chapters or sub-chapters as the case may be. Each chunk is guided by the general curriculum objectives or goals. The division of the content may use the deductive principle form the whole to the parts which will have a cascading arrangement or the inductive principle from the examples to the generalization. Inductive arrangement of a scope begins with simple concepts to general content. Topical arrangement or content outline of the curriculum may follow some design as thematic, linear or logical.  SEQUENCE – To provide continuous and cumulative learning, a vertical relationship among the elements of the curriculum provides the sequence. Contents nd experiences are arranged in hierarchical manner, where the basis can either be logic of the subject matter or on the developmental patterns of growth of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Some schools formulate their curricular objectives, content, and experiences by grade levels and consider the stages of thinking. 45  Smith, Stanley and Shore (1957) introduced four principles for sequence. These are the following: 1. Simple to complex learning – content and experiences are organized from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, form easy to difficult. This principle is in consonance with developmental theories of learning and cognition. 2. Prerequisite learning – it means that there are fundamental things t be learned ahead. Like addition before multiplication in mathematics or letters before words, words before phrases and phrases before sentences. 3. Whole to part learning – this principle has a relation to gestalt. The forest before the trees. The overview before the specific content or topics. The meaning can very well be understood if everything will be taken as a whole. 4. Chronological learning – the order of events is made as a basis of sequencing the content and the experiences. This principle is closely allied to history, political science or world events. Time is the factor to be considered. The sequence can be arranged from the most recent to the distant past or vice versa. On the other hand, Posner and Rudnitsky (1994) presented five major principles for organizing content in units, which can also be applied to a curriculum. In each major type are subtypes which explain in detail the principle. 1. WORLD-RELATED SEQUENCE – what relationship exists among people, objects or events of the world? How can content and experiences be arranged so that they will be consistent with the world? a. Space – spatial relations will ne the basis for the sequence. Closest to farthest, bottom to top or east to west. Teach the parts of the plants from the roots to the stem to the leaves, flowers and fruits. b. Time – this is similar to the chronological principle of Smith, et. Al. the content is based from the earliest to the more recent. Teach the Philippine presidents from the first to the current. 46  c. Physical attributes – this principle refers to the physical characteristics of the phenomena such as age, shape, size, brightness, and others. For example, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, before Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto; this sequence considers the attribute distance from the Sun. 2. CONCEPT-RELATED SEQUENCE – this arrangement reflects the organization of the conceptual world, how ideas are related together in a logical manner. a. Class relations – class concepts refers to the group or set of things that share common practices. Teaching the characteristics of the class ahead of the characteristics of the member of the class. For example, teach mammals before teaching specific animals or compare sound and light before discussing about wave motion. b. Propositional relation – a proportion is a statement that asserts something. Sequence is arranged so that evidence is presented ahead before proposition. Example will be to teach the topics on the principle of equal protection under the law before studying Supreme Court decisions. 3. INQUIRY-RELATE SEQUENCE – this is based on the scientific method of inquiry. Based on the process of generating, discovering and verifying knowledge, content and experiences are sequenced logically and methodically. 4. LEARNING-REALTED SEQUENCE – this is based on the psychology of learning and how people learn. a. Empirical prerequisite – sequence is primarily based on empirical studies where the prerequisite is required before learning the next level. An example is teach skill in 47  discriminating initial consonants, before teaching word attack or; in softball, teach catching and throwing the ball before batting. b. Familiarity – prior learning is important in sequence. What is familiar should be taken up first before the unfamiliar. In teaching currencies, teach the peso before the dollar. c. Difficulty – easy content is taken ahead than the difficult one. Or teach rhymes before blank words. d. Interest – contents and experiences that stimulate interest are those that are novel. These arouse curiosity and interest of learners. Use these contents and experiences to whet their appetite for learning. An example is identifying the different volcanoes in the Philippines before teaching about volcanism.  CONTINUITY– vertical repetition and recurring appearances of the content provide continuity in the curriculum. This process enables the learner to strengthen the permanency of learning and development of skills. Gerome Bruner calls this “spiral curriculum” where the content is organized according to the interrelationship between the structure of the basic ideas of a major discipline. For learners to develop the ideas, these have to be developed and redeveloped in a spiral fashion-in increasing depth and breadth as the learner’s advance. Example is the concept of living things in science which continuously recurs in the elementary curriculum but with different complexity from level to level.  INTEGRATION- “everything is integrated and interconnected. Life is a series of emerging themes”. This is the essence of integration in the curriculum design. Organization is drawn from the world themes from real life concerns. Subject content or disciplined content lines are erased and isolation is eliminated.  ARTICULATION – this can be done either vertically or horizontally. In vertical articulation, contents are arranged from level to level or grade to grade so that the content in a lower level is connected to the next level. Horizontal articulation 48  happens when the association is among or between elements that happen at the same time like social studies in grade six is related to science in grade six.  BALANCE– equitable assignment of content, time, experiences and other elements to establish balance is needed in curriculum design. Too much or too little of these elements maybe disastrous to the curriculum. Keeping the curriculum “in balance” requires continuous fine tuning and review for its effectiveness and relevance. Guidelines in Curriculum Design After looking into various designs in curriculum, perhaps it would help future curriculum makers like you to take into consideration some pointers, here are some pointers:  Curriculum design committee should involve teachers, parents, administrators and even students.  School’s vision, mission, goals and objectives should be reviewed and used as a bases for curriculum design.  The needs and the interests of the learners, in particular, and the society, in general, should be considered.  Alternative curriculum design should consider advantages and disadvantages in terms of costs, scheduling, class size, facilities and personnel required.  The curriculum design should take into account cognitive, affective, psychomotor skills, concepts and outcomes. C. Curriculum Implementation After a Curriculum planning and designing, the next step is to implement it. Curriculum implementation is now giving life to the written material. In doing this, the LEARNERS will serve as another actor because curriculum will not succeed without the 49 leaners. The role of the teacher now is to shifts from planning to doing. Teacher implies guiding, facilitating, and directing activities which will be done by the students, the methods to be utilized, the materials to be used and the choice of activities are some of the considerations that the teachers should have in curricular implementation. Teachers are the most crucial persons in the implementation of a curriculum. Being the adult in the teaching- learning process, he/ she holds the key in operationalizing what activities have been planned. Teachers shape the school curriculum by sharing the experiences that they have and the resources they are capable of giving or imparting to the learners. Teacher will serve as an implementor and a manager as well. The teaching styles of a teacher will add more meaning to the various activities in the classroom. As a teacher, you have to make the day of the learners more interesting, engaging and unforgettable. Different definition of Curriculum Implementation: 1. Curriculum Implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides and subjects. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000) 2. It is a process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in society. ( SADC MoE Africa, 2000) 3. It is the phase where teacher action takes place. (Tyler, Taba, Saylor and Alexander or Lewis). 4. It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum development. (Tyler, Taba, Saylor and Alexander or Lewis) 5. Curriculum Implementation simply means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement. (Loucks anf Lieberman, 1983) 6. In the classroom content, it means “teaching” what has been written in the lesson plan. It involves the different strategies of teaching with the support instructional materials to go with the strategy. 50  7. In larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation with the different implementing agents. 8. In higher education, curriculum implementation happens for a course, a degree program, the institution, or the whole higher education system. 9. Curriculum Implementation defined as the interaction between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the teachers who are in charge to deliver it. (Ornstein and Hunkins) According to them, the curriculum implementation implies the following: a. Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum. b. Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved. c. Change in behavior using new strategies and resources. d. Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable. Models of Curriculum Implementation There are several models of curriculum implementation but for the purpose of this work only the selected ones that are applicable in implementing curriculum in our various institutions are discussed below: ORC model (Overcoming Resistance to Change) The letters 'ORC' stands for 'Overcoming Resistance to Change'. This model rests on the assumption that the success or otherwise of curriculum implementation primarily depends on the impact the developer makes on the users of curriculum such as, teachers, students and the society in general. If we desire change then we must address people's misgivings, their misapprehensions, or other such related factors. 1. ORC model (Overcoming Resistance to Change) 51  The letters 'ORC' stands for 'Overcoming Resistance to Change'. This model rests on the assumption that the success or otherwise of curriculum implementation primarily depends on the impact the developer makes on the users of curriculum such as, teachers, students and the society in general. If we desire change then we must address people's misgivings, their misapprehensions, or other such related factors. Curriculum developers should, therefore, identify and deal with the concerns of the staff in various educational institutions when implementing new curriculum. We can group the concerns into the following four broad developmental stages: Developmental stage versus Developmental concerns: 1. Unrelated Concerns: At this stage, teachers do not perceive a relationship between themselves and the suggested changes. For example, if a new programme is being developed, a teacher at this stage may or may not be aware of this effort. If he/she is aware of it, he/she may not consider it something that concerns him her. 2. Personal Concerns: At this stage, the teacher will react to the innovation in relation to his/her personal situation. He/she is concerned with how the new programme compares to the one already in use. 3. Task-related Concerns: This stage relates to the actual use of the innovation. The teacher at this stage will be concerned with the time required for teaching the new programme, availability of materials, strategies to be adopted, etc. 4. Impact-related Concerns: The teacher at this stage will be concerned with how the innovation will influence others. When working with the ORC model, we must deal directly with the concerns at stages 2, 3 and 4 in order to serve the purpose for which the change is affected. 52  2. LOC model (Leadership-Obstacle course model) LOC is the acronym for 'Leadership-Obstacle Course' model. This model treats staff resistance to change as problematic and proposes that we should collect data to determine the extent and nature of the resistance in implementing the curriculum. This can be carried out by the following: 1. the organizational members must have a clear understanding of the proposed innovation; 2. the individuals within the organization must be given relevant skills so that they possess the capabilities requisite for carrying out the innovation; 3. the necessary materials and equipment for the innovation must be furnished; 4. if need be, the organizational structure must be modified so that it is compatible with the innovation being suggested; 5. the participants in the innovation must be motivated to spend the required time and effort to make the innovation a success. The LOC model considers educational change as a sequence of three stages: 1. initiation; 2. attempted implementation; and 3. incorporation. 3. Linkage model The 'linkage' model recognizes that there are innovators in research and development centers such as the universities. Educators in the field sometimes however, find some attempts that are innovative and inappropriate for solving the problems. What is therefore needed is a match between the problems and innovations to establishment of linkages with the established research centers. This model envisages two systems: user system and resource system. There has to be a link between these two systems. The resource system should have a clear picture of the curriculum user's problems, if it is to retrieve or create 53 appropriate educational packages. A successful resource system must proceed through a cycle of diagnosis, search, retrieval, fabrication of solution, dissemination and evaluation in order to test out its product. Thus, in the linkage model, the basic process is the transfer of knowledge. 4. RCA (Rand Change Agent model) The Rand Change Agent (RCA) model suggests that organizational dynamics seem to be the chief barriers to change. As in ORC and LOC models it puts forward the following three stages in the change process: a. Initiation: At this stage, the curriculum developers work to secure the support for the anticipated change. To support a change, such as a new program people must understand and agree that it is legitimate. Thus, curriculum implementation activity requires the personal backing of the individuals involved. For example, at this stage, we should inform the teachers about the need for change and how it might take place. b. Implementation: At this stage, the proposed change, i.e., the new program and the organizational structure are adjusted to operationalize the change. c. Incorporation: During this stage, the changes implemented become part of the established program. The assumption behind this is that the success of the implementation is a function of: 1. the characteristics of the proposed change; 2. the abilities of the academic and administrative staff; 3. the readiness of the local community; and 4. the organizational structure. During the incorporation stage, the changes implemented become part of the established program. At this stage the program implemented is provided with the necessary personnel and financial support. 54 Factors that Influence Curriculum Implementation 1. The Teacher Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers have to make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers also influence curriculum implementation. The teacher may need to create lesson plans and syllabi within the framework of the given curriculum since the teacher’s responsibilities are to implement the curriculum to meet student needs (Carl, 2009). Many studies support empowerment of teachers through participation of curriculum development. For example, Fullan (1991) found that the level of teacher involvement as a center of curriculum development leads to effective achievement of educational reform. Therefore, the teacher is an important factor in the success of curriculum development including the steps of implementation and evaluation. Handler (2010) also found that there is a need for teacher involvement in the development of curriculum. Teachers can contribute by collaboratively and effectively working with curriculum development teams and specialists to arrange and compose textbooks, and it’s content. Teacher involvement in the process of curriculum development is important to align content of curriculum with students needs in the classroom. 2. The Learners Learners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. While teachers are the arbiters of the classroom practice, the learners hold the key to what is actually transmitted and adopted from the official curriculum. The official curriculum can be quite different from the curriculum that is actually implemented. The learner factor influences 55 teachers in their selection of learning experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum implementation. For example, home background and learner ability can determine what is actually achieved in the classroom. 3. Resource Materials and Facilities In Curriculum Implementation, it is suggested that the central government must also provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, libraries and sports fields in order to create an environment in which implementation can take place. The availability and quality of resource material and the availability of appropriate facilities have a great influence on curriculum implementation. 4. Interest Groups A number of these interest groups exist in almost all societies. These include parents, parents’ and teachers’ associations, religious organizations, local authorities, companies and private school proprietors. These groups can influence curriculum implementation in the following ways: 1. Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials. 2. Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum. 3. Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests of the group. 5. The School Environment One other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the particular circumstances of each school. Schools located in rich socio-economic environments and those that have adequate human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an extent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments to implement. 6. Culture and Ideology 56  Cultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also influence curriculum implementation. Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum. 7. Instructional Supervision Curriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible through the supervisory function of the school head. The head does this through:  deploying staff,  allocating time to subjects taught at the school,  providing teaching and learning materials, and  creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning. As stated in Curriculum Implementation, the head “monitors and guides curriculum implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and records of marks are prepared regularly”. The head teacher maintains a school tone and culture that create the climate of social responsibility. Effective curriculum implementation does not take place in a school where the head is incapable of executing supervisory functions. 8. Assessment Assessment in the form of examinations influences curriculum implementation tremendously. Due to the great value given to public examination certificates by communities and schools teachers have tended to concentrate on subjects that promote academic excellence and little else on the rest. This action by the teacher obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and objectives of the curriculum. 9. Unconducive School Environment It is believed that learning can only take place in a conducive envir