EDU1205 Educational Psychology Week 12 Revision PDF

EDU1205 Educational Psychology Week 12: Revision Learning Outcomes By the end of this session, you will Review the 5 Principles of Development Consider areas for revision for AT3- Exam Review key terminology Apply knowledge of this unit through a practice quiz 5 Principles of deve...

EDU1205 Educational Psychology Week 12: Revision Learning Outcomes By the end of this session, you will Review the 5 Principles of Development Consider areas for revision for AT3- Exam Review key terminology Apply knowledge of this unit through a practice quiz 5 Principles of development 1. Development involves a series of progressive and orderly changes towards maturity 2. Development is continuous and discontinuous/ uneven https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Wm_FhIfx78 3. Development is a lifelong process 4. Development can vary from one person to another 5. There are multiple pathways, factors and contributors to development  5 Principles of development 1. Development involves a series of progressive and orderly changes towards maturity 5 Principles of development 2. Development is continuous and discontinuous/ uneven  5 Principles of development 3. Development is a lifelong process 5 Principles of development 4. Development can vary from one person to another  5 Principles of development 5. There are multiple pathways, factors and contributors to development  Revision focus areas Education Psychology Key theories Key theorists, models/ stages and ages Key terminology and definitions Implications (strengths and weaknesses) and application in the classroom Awareness of the relevance of theories when categorised into​: Early childhood Middle childhood Adolescence  Key Theories, Models & Terminology Principles of Development - Duchesne and McMaugh Physical Cognitive and Socio-emotional Behaviourism Socio-cultural development Socio-cognitive development development development Classical Stages Identity Conditioning Ecological What occurs at Piaget - Erikson - Pavlov Systems Theory each stage Vygotsky - Marcia - Bronfenbrenner Bandura Operant Moral Conditioning Information - Kohlberg - Skinner processing - Gilligan theory - Selman Cognitive load Emotional- theory - Goleman - Learning strategies - Harter  Key Terms (Activity 1) Consider the definitions of the key terms Week 12- Activity 1 key word revision.docx Physical, social, and intellectual development Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.  Physical Development Height Sexual health Weight Fertility Fine and gross motor skills Menopause Changes in our senses Increased coordination Primary versus secondary Brain development aging Coordination of emotions Nutrition Puberty Exercise Cognitive development Language development Debate Logical thinking Moral reasoning Mental processes Practical intelligence Memory abilities Learning Brain development Understanding The brain’s ability to Abstract thinking change Problem solving Socio-emotional development psychologically vs socially. temperament marriage attachment having children play and interactions with Career others Family/ friends Emotions divorce Personality blended families, self-esteem caring for elderly Relationships becoming grandparents/ great Peers grandparents Roles in society retirement Identity coping with losses Dating/ romance death and dying. Putting it together- (Duchesne & McMaugh, Revision resource 2019. p. 214-215)  Practice Quiz (Activity 2) Complete the practice quiz  Memory Short-term memory also called working memory, occurs in the prefrontal cortex. It stores information for about one minute and its capacity is limited to about 7 items, plus or minus 2 items (Miller, 1956). For example, it enables you to dial a phone number someone just told you. It also intervenes during reading, to memorize the sentence you have just read, so that the next one makes sense. Long-term memory is processed in the hippocampus of the temporal lobe and is activated when you want to memorize something for a longer time. This memory has unlimited content and duration capacity. It contains personal memories as well as facts and figures. Skill memory is processed in the cerebellum, which relays information to the basal ganglia. It stores automatic learned memories like tying a shoe, playing an instrument, or riding a bike. Physical Development  Physical Development Fine and gross motor skills: the ability to control and coordinate movements. Fine motor control- small movements of the fingers and hands, hand-eye coordination Gross motor control- large and coordinated movements of the trunk, arms, and legs- pushing, pulling, rolling, crawling, walking and sitting still  Physical Development Stages of Learning: Skill Acquisition - PE & Sport (Motor Skills) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7UcobScnck  Physical Development Duchesne & McMaugh (2019). Educational psychology for learning & teaching. (6th ed.). p.32  Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Schemas Categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. Characteristics of objects and personas Example: Cat- dog- horse- cow Cognitive equilibrium/ disequilibrium As children successfully assimilate new learning/skills into existing schemas, they reach cognitive equilibrium in their thinking. Disequilibrium – When the schemas are not immediately assimilated, or the learner is confused and has difficulty understanding the new material at first. Signs of disequilibrium: confusion, frustration, indecisiveness struggle  Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget, 1971) Stages of Cognitive Development Children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X36n KHl5DHE&feature=youtu.be Socio-cognitive theory Vygotsky (1962) A child's development is best understood in relation to social and cultural experience Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships Play: A Vygotskian Approach https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE&vl=en  Theme 1: Sociocultural origins of cognitive development Infants are born with an inherited A child’s mental abilities capacity for specific patterns of are structured in 2 areas action. 1. Lower mental functions (inherited Babies also have prenatal involuntary elementary mental experiences. functions such as attention, From birth, their task is to acquire a sensation, perception, memory ) sequence of skills and 2. Higher mental functions (those competencies which are uniquely abilities that develop through human, with language being the social interaction, including logical most important of these skills. and abstract thinking, and This acquisition of skills and language) that occur ‘in the head’; competencies (learning) is achieved they control the lower mental through social interaction. functions Theme 2: Internalisation This is about the transformation of external processes into internal processes that guide action and thought. ​ Individuals internalise the ideas and processes they participate in during social interaction as new ways of thinking. ​ Thinking is gradually transformed through social interaction. There is a social structuring process that needs to take place between the child and its environment. The process is mediated through ‘internalisation’. Theme 3: Social Interaction Vygotsky argued that it is through social interaction with others that we learn to think.​ Development arises from social interaction. ​ There is a co-construction going on between the teacher (or parent ) and the child. ​ There are two levels here – oan interpsychological level and o an intrapsychological level, then inside the child The MKO (the more knowledgeable other agent) plays an important part in conveying what is to be learnt. ​ Theme 4: Language as a mental tool Vygotsky argued that each culture has a set of artefacts – physical and mental tools – through which the culture is expressed and passed on.​ He called these artefacts ‘mental tools’ – they are particular to each culture and shape individuals’ thinking in the ways of the culture.​ Language is the most important mental tool passed on from adults and peers to children during social interaction.​ There are many other mental tools which are part of the culture in which the child matures. ​ Theme 4: Language as a mental tool Language development Research has shown the way in which language development is connected to cognition.​ Vygotsky and children’s language development: self-talk/egocentric speech inner speech Theme 4: Language as a mental tool  Theme 5: Zone of proximal development In thinking about the social context in which children learn, Vygotsky identified what he called as the zone of proximal development. It is the distance between children’s current level of competence on a task and the level they can achieve with support or guidance. Students who struggle to solve problems independently, can with a hint from the teacher, solve the problem. Theme 5: Scaffolding Developmental Psychology: Incorporating Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Classrooms https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6c7b/9a7b4988d f15c68a14434a5f162bef984723.pdf Albert Bandura Social LearningTheory What did the Bobo Doll experiment prove? (1978) Children learn aggressive behaviour through Learners have personal observation agency – they are self- regulating, reflective learners Applications of Bandura's Theory Observational learning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAU4JndfqBk When we observe and imitate someone else’s behavior Social cognitive examples in films Modeling: behavior is more https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1OogJ6m_tA likely to be performed if it leads to rewarding outcomes, rather than punishment Children can learn vicariously by observing the behaviour and consequences for others.  Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1978) 1. Attention – students 2. Retention – they cannot learn need to store what if they are not they are learning giving full attention 4. Motivation – 3. Reproduction- they need to be they need to motivated to do reproduce what the above three they have learnt elements  Self-efficacy Believing in yourself is a powerful intrinsic motivator When facing a challenge, do you feel like you can rise up Self-efficacy is important because it plays a role in how you feel about yourself and if you feel that you can successfully achieve and accomplish your goal, or your goals in life. do you give up in defeat? People with strong self- People with poor self- Do you give it your best shot efficacy: efficacy: ("I think I can, I think I can!"), Develop a deeper interest in Avoid challenging tasks​ or do you doubt your abilities the activities in which they Believe that difficult tasks and to overcome the difficulties? participate​ situations are beyond their Form a stronger sense of capabilities​ If you tend to keep going in commitment to their interests Focus on personal failings the face of obstacles, you and activities​ and negative outcomes​ probably have a high degree Recover quickly from setbacks Quickly lose confidence in of self-efficacy. and disappointments​ personal abilities View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered  Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982) We form our sense of self-efficacy in early childhood by dealing with various experiences, tasks, and situations. The growth of self- efficacy does not end during youth but continues to evolve throughout life Bandura identified four major sources of self-efficacy Mastery experience: Vicarious experience: Social persuasion: Psychological feedback: Performing a task Seeing people similar to People can be Moods, emotional states, successfully strengthens oneself succeed by persuaded to believe they physical reactions, and our sense of self- sustained effort raises have the skills and stress levels can all impact efficacy. Failing to observers' beliefs that they capabilities to succeed how a person feels about adequately deal with a task too possess the their personal abilities in a or challenge can weaken capabilities particular situation self-efficacy  Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) This theory emphasizes the dynamic interaction between people (personal factors), their behavior, and their environments. People are active agents who can both influence and are Reciprocal influenced by their environment determinism We learn new behaviors by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of their behavior An interactive We are capable of self-regulating (self-motivating) and complimentary determining their own behaviour system formed We do not need external reinforcement, we can self-reinforce by people and to drive their own actions. environments SCT can be used to explain a wide range of human behavior, ranging from positive to negative social behaviors such as aggression, substance abuse, and mental health problems Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)  Susan Harter (1982) Self-concept Self-esteem A collection of information, ideas, The level of satisfaction and pride that attitudes and beliefs we have about individuals have in the self ourselves- there could be many ways How you feel about yourself in terms you see yourself of feelings and emotions (affective You could have a non-academic self- side) concept made up of a social side It involves an affective judgement (= your peer relations, friendships) about oneself (one’s feelings and and a physical side (= your physical moods) appearance and physical ability) Self-Esteem can be observed as the You could also have an academic degree of felt success in academic, self-concept (consisting of various social, and physical arenas. school subjects)  Erikson (1950) Self-identity An internal self-structure in which we organize our beliefs, abilities, needs and self-perceptions As teachers, we need to It involves a personal quest to find out consider whether our lessons ‘who we are’ as we grow , develop thinking in our particularly during adolescence. students which fosters a ‘positive body image’ and a Erik Erikson’s Theory of Identity healthy self-esteem? Development – traces the ‘journey’ which structures our identity.  Stages of Psychosocial Development (1950) Identity development moves through a series of 8 psychosocial stages Each stage has a main psychosocial crisis (or turning point). During the crisis/turning point – individuals experience conflict and disequilibrium that must be resolved before they move onto the next stage. In the crisis individuals face a choice of two ways of coping – a positive way which leads to healthy personality development or a negative way which leads to difficulties and problems in later stages. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html Erikson’s 8 stages (Disney films) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvWfct9sHOY Identity development in the school years Stage 3 (4-6yrs) Stages 4 & 5 (middle childhood and adolescence)  Extension of Erikson’s theory James Marcia (1980, 1993, 2002) expanded on Erikson’s adolescent identity development and its crises. In his research on identity development, he has also found that adolescents can take one of four pathways: - Identity achievement - Identity foreclosure - Identity diffusion - Moratorium Identity Statuses (Marcia, 1966) 45 Moral Development (Kohlberg (1958) How people reason about right and wrong. How people reason about moral issues Internalisation- ​the change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal principles. Disequilibrium- A child encountering a moral issue may find limitations in their current reasoning approach. As children mature, they increasingly understand issues from others’ viewpoints.  Moral Development Theory (Kohlberg, 1986) People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. They move from Heteronormous morality: moral decision based on rules of authority figures to Autonomous morality: moral reasoning that appreciates perspectives of others and the motives behind their words and actions Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.  4 component model of moral behaviour (Rest, 1982) 1.Moral sensitivity - the 2. Moral judgement - the 3. Moral 4. Moral individual must be able to individual must be able to motivation - character - the interpret a particular situation judge which action is the individual individual must in terms of possible courses of right and ought to decide must be able to have sufficient action, determine who could what to do in a particular choose moral ego, strength and be affected by the action, and understand how the affected situation. values over implementation party would regard the effect personal skills to follow his  Emotional Development In infancy: In primary school-aged children In adolescence: Children have limited ability to (to 10 years of age): Young people undergo another emotionally self-regulate— Children manage their emotions burst of brain development, defined as ‘strategies used to using two general strategies: especially in cognitive and adjust intensity or duration of problem-centred coping and social/emotional capacities. emotional state’ (Berk & emotion-centred coping. They Cared-for young people acquire Roberts, 2009). are able to do this because they what is known as ‘executive have greater cognitive ability and functioning abilities’, including This skill is learnt through the a wider range of social higher-order decision making, caring interaction experiences on which to draw. planning and judgement. between parent and child as the child continues to develop Children develop emotional self- Young people also focus strongly through the trajectory. efficacy, defined as a ‘feeling of on peer relations, especially on being in control of emotional friendships, peer acceptance, experiences’ (Saarni, 2000) and dating, peer pressure and learn ‘emotional display rules’— conformity. This sets them up for that is when, where and how to later developmental milestones of express emotions. adulthood.  Emotional Intelligence (Goleman 1995) Emotional Intelligence the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict. It includes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdhjztWMnVw  Behaviourism Key terms (Activity 1) Behavior is learned through interaction Behaviour – Actions that are observable with the environment and measurable Behaviourism – Theories about the effect Behaviors are of external events on behaviour acquired through the Contiguity – Cause/Effect. The process of association of two events or things that are always closely paired, or that conditioning: repeatedly occur at the same time the process of Stimulus (S) – An environmental stimulus, response condition or event that activates the and senses reinforcement/ Response (R) – An observable reaction to punishment a known (or unknown stimulus) Conditioning- the establishment of a new association between S and R https://www.youtube.com/watch?v =xvVaTy8mQrg  Classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1928) The association of an automatic response to a stimulus Pairing two stimuli together (contiguity) so that if one stimulus can trigger a reaction, the other can do the same, too, simply by association Discrimination= different behaviours learned against different stimuli Extinguishment= the gradual disappearance of behaviour due to repetiition of stimulus withouth outcome  Classical Conditioning VS Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning: Operant Conditioning: The Office Big Bang Theory https://www.youtube.co https://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=xnf8i_IRCcw m/watch?v=LEJqowyuyi0  Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1937) Where an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior Operant Conditioning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLaa8cgljKk Key terms Operant: Voluntary actions that are usually goal directed Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. Punishment: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. Extinction: The process of no longer providing the reinforcement that has been maintaining a behavior.  Reinforcement The consequences could be an action that is A reinforcer is any consequence that has the pleasing to someone such as cheers from a effect of crowd, good marks or even a hug o maintaining a specific behaviour, or o increasing the rate at which the behaviour A behaviour that maintains or increases due to a occurs or spontaneous or planned reinforcer o the probability that it will occur again To achieve contiguity the reinforcer must occur immediately after the identified behaviour Primary reinforcer- An unconditioned (unlearnt stimulus) that is innately rewarding Eventually the reinforcer is removed, allowing o Such as satisfying a need, like a hinger or thirst the behaviour to remain Secondary reinforcer- A conditioned or learnt stimulus Satiation – A stimulus that originally that functions as a reward through association functioned as a reinforcer no longer has an o Such as using money, stickers, certificates affect  Reinforcement and Punishment quadrants Positive Positive Punishment: Reinforcement Adding an aversive Strengthens a or unpleasant behavior by adding a stimulus immediatel consequence that an y following a individual will find behavior to decrease rewarding. the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future. Negative Negative Reinforcement Punishment The removal of an Removing a pleasant unpleasant reinforcer stimulus to decrease can also strengthen a behavior behavior.  Extinction and Punishment Operant conditioning offers a means to decrease and change behaviour through reinforcement, extinction and the use of differential schedules. Punishment has been found to be least effective and should be used as a last resort. Punishment as a teaching strategy has been heavily criticised and is largely seen as ineffective. Too often teachers seek to decrease unwanted behaviour by punishing the student What would be the best approach ? Removal of privileges or stimuli is a better option- Where actions are not rewarded i.e stickers or rewards for good behaviour Students could sign a contract to indicate that they understand and agree with an intervention plan https://youtu.be/xC4wSO3IDYg?t=41 Continuous and Intermittent Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement is useful, particularly with young children or in the early stages of teaching a new skill. There is the danger of satiation, when the reinforcer loses its appeal as a motivator. ​ Intermittent reinforcement- once a new behaviour is established, it needs to be reinforced intermittently through a ratio schedule (fixed or variable)  Reinforcement Schedules The frequency with which reinforcement is delivered Different types of learning and different learning situations require different reinforcement schedules. Different schedules have different effects  Teaching New Behaviours (Activity 3) When teaching a new behaviour involving actions that are new to a student you can use the following tools to help the student learn Reinforcement of gradual Shaping Modelling Demonstrating a desired approximations of the behaviour response to be imitated Chaining When an action functions both as Fading Gradually removing prompts or a reinforcer for the previous reinforcers action and a stimulus for the next Cueing Using a specific stimulus (a cue) Generalisation Responding the same way to to elicit a desired response similar stimuli Prompting Providing an additional stimulus Maintenance Continued performance of an (hint) to elicit a desired response action after the instruction has ceased Where would you use these methods in your teaching? Discuss with your partner  Teaching implications Eyes in the back Students are less likely to misbehave when Set up your room in a way that maximises visibility. Do of your head they know their teacher notices everything in simple things such as positioning yourself, scanning the theManagement Behaviour classroom. room and limiting your back to the class Strategies With the Highest-Impact Structure Your Teachers who have strong relationships with Forge strong relationships by being both firm and caring – Teaching their students find it easier to while also expecting students to do their best manage behaviour. Nip Small Most misbehaviour can be dealt with quickly Corrective actions include making eye contact, moving Problems in the and easily. Correct minor infringements on closer to a student or group, rule reminders or direct Bud the spot and then moving on with the lesson. instruction. Group Group reinforcement works well due to the Reward a small group for being the first to be ready Reinforcement pervasive power of peers, this involves or penalise a small group for not focusing, give a reward rewarding or penalising whole groups. of 5 mins extra play if they lined up well, give a punishment of keeping them in 5 mins if they misbehave. Individual Individual reinforcement involves rewarding Rewards can include tokens, such as points, stickers, good Reinforcement desirable behaviour and penalising marks, and positive praise. Effective punishment could misbehaviour of individuals. include penalties, informing parents and detention Routines Students spend 15% of the lesson following Clarify your expectations and turn them into habitual routine procedures. Students are less likely to ways of acting, including entering the classroom, getting misbehave during routine actions. books out and stopping work to pay attention etc.  Multi-Store Model Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed a direct link between rehearsal in the short-term memory and the strength of the long term memory.​ Sensation Sight, sound, smell, touch, taste  IP Terminology Sensation – information taken in from the Long term memory – a permanent storage facility environment through the five senses ​ for information Sensory memory – stores new information, Encoding – process of storing information in the which enters via the sensory register long-term memory through the five senses, for between one Retrieval – processes of bringing information and three seconds ​ stored in long-term memory back to be Attention – allocation of resources to manipulated in the working memory process information​ Elaboration – processes of linking new Working memory/short-term memory – a information with what is stored in long-term working space for short-term storage and memory manipulation of small amounts of Central control – Higher level functions that information; contains your conscious control the processes and flow of information thought.​ Rehearsal – repeating items as a memory Central executive – controls what the working memory attends to and how it interacts with long strategy ​ term memory  Multi-Store Model Memory processing 1. The sensory memory store constantly receives information from the environment. Most of this information receives no attention and so is lost. However, if the information that enters the sensory stores is attended to (paid attention) then this information is encoded and passes through to the short- term memory (STM). 2. Once in the STM, information needs to be rehearsed or it can be lost through either displacement (the STM has a capacity of 7+/- 2 items) or decay (as the STM only has a duration of 0-18 seconds). 3. If information is elaborative rehearsed (over and over) and the information is understood, then the information will be transferred /encoded into the long term memory (LTM). 4. The LTM can hold information for an unlimited amount of time and has an unlimited capacity. 5. When stored information is needed, it can be retrieved from the LTM back to the STM.  Multi-Store Model How students learn when they are processing information  Executive Functioning Executive function is a set of mental skills. It includes working memory, flexible thinking, and self- control. We use these skills every day to learn, work, and manage daily life. Trouble with executive function can make it hard to focus, follow directions, and handle emotions, among other things. Cognitive inhibitory control Cognitive flexibility The ability to control our focus The ability to switch between thinking about two and attention while having different concepts or to think about multiple several distracting stimuli all concepts simultaneously. around us. Obtaining greater cognitive flexibility helps i.e. studying for an exam while children learn, in and out of school. The ability to resisting the impulse to check shift perspective and recognize when the rules Facebook; learning in a noisy change allows us to think in novel ways, act environment creatively and solve problems.  IP Teaching & Learning techniques Teachers need to be aware that there 1 Learning Strategies are different ways in which learning A general plan that a learner formulates can be ‘packaged’ or presented. for achieving an academic goal. They need to be flexible and use a variety of approaches so that at some 2. Learning Tactic point every student’s interests are A specific technique that a learner uses addressed. to accomplish an immediate learning They should also consider how the goal. These tactics help learners get actual memory system works and the closer to their learning strategy goals strategies that could be used to help Learning tactics can be information processing/memory Memory- directed tactics (encoding, storing and retrieval). Comprehension-directed tactics  Learning Strategies Executive functioning skills play a key Learning strategies assist with role in how a child learns and performs improving executive functioning daily tasks. They allow us to pay attention, set goals, plan, Strategies to organise, remember information, transition Improve Executive Functioning between thoughts and actions, and regulate our behaviour and emotions. Making lists Using a planner Setting achievable goals Visual organisation systems (colour coding, labels etc) Simplifying instructions Minimising clutter Keeping track of the time Rewards and motivation techniques  Learning Tactics- Memory- directed tactics Techniques to help produce accurate storage, encoding and retrieval of information Rehearsal & repetition o Rote learning Mnemonic devices o acronyms and acrostics o association o rhyme o chunking o keyword o method of loci o songs and rhymes o coding o classifying  IP Teaching & Learning techniques Tutorial resource- snowman reading 1 Learning Strategies 2. Learning Tactic A general plan that a learner formulates A specific technique that a learner uses to accomplish an immediate learning for achieving an academic goal. Assists goal. These tactics help produce accurate storage, encoding and retrieval of their executive functioning- executive information and aid in understanding the meaning of ideas. control, attention, cognitive flexibility, Learning tactics can be​ readiness for learning Memory- directed tactics Comprehension-directed tactics Learning Strategies Rehearsal & repetition Note-taking Making lists o Rote learning o Summarise Using a planner Mnemonic devices o Paraphrase Setting achievable goals o acronyms and acrostics o Visualise Visual organisation systems o association o Graphic organisers (colour coding, labels etc) o chunking o Diagrams Simplifying instructions o keyword Self and peer questioning Minimising clutter o method of loci o Synthesize Keeping track of the time o songs and rhymes o Explanation Rewards and motivation o coding o Think aloud techniques o classifying o Make links Information Processing Cognitive Load Metacognition  Metacognition (Weinert, 1987) The process by which learners use knowledge of the task at hand, knowledge of learning strategies, and knowledge of themselves to plan their learning, monitor their progress towards a learning goal, and then evaluate the outcome. Many researchers describe metacognition as having two basic components: a knowledge component and a regulatory component (Ertmer & Newby, 1996; Schraw, 1998). Metacognitive knowledge Self-regulation Encompasses knowledge of oneself as a learner Self-regulation of learning involves the ability to plan, (e.g., strengths, weaknesses, prior monitor, and evaluate the learning process. It is a skill knowledge/experience in the area, preferred set that students can develop to learn more effectively time of day for study, preferred study location) and better monitor their progress towards learning Metacognitive knowledge also includes goals. knowledge of the task to be completed and Self-regulated learners regulate their actions, cognition, effective strategies to complete the task beliefs and motivations by selecting their own approach to learning and processing (Shin, 1998) Metacognition Metacognition https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZrUWvfU6VU  Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Sweller,1988) The human brain can only deal with a small amount of new information at once Cognitive load theory uses knowledge of the human brain to design teaching strategies that will maximise learning. It is about optimising the load on students’ working memories to help maximise their learning. Understanding how human brains learn can help teachers to employ more effective teaching methods. Cognitive Load Theory Videos 1-4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KbzmM30NXNQ  Forms of Cognitive Load Intrinsic Load: Extraneous Load: Germane Load: Indicates the difficulty of The load created due to the way Components that aid the learning task to the learner, the instructional materials are processing of information and Linked to the amount of prior presented. contribute to the long-lasting knowledge on the topic. The extraneous load can be construction of schemas. Can only be reduced by altering increased or reduced based on A typical example of Germane the nature of learning several factors – the type of load is creating diagrams and material or by changing the act task, student attention, time on flowcharts to perform complex of learning itself. task, etc. tasks. Example- a reader's mental Example- someone trying to Systematic organisation of workload can be reduced by study who is disturbed by loud Germane materials makes using more plain and legible music or nearby traffic. These complex learning easier to handwriting, rather than using noises are considered extraneous remember. a cursive, scribbly font. load as they act as obstacles to the completion of cognitive tasks. Navigating Cognitive Load IP  Teaching Strategies (CLT) Strategy 1: Tailor lessons according to students’ existing knowledge and skill. Strategy 2: Use worked examples to teach students new content or skills. Strategy 3: Gradually increase independent problem- solving as students become more proficient. Strategy 4: Cut out inessential information. Strategy 5: Present all the essential information together. Strategy 6: Simplify complex information by presenting it both orally and visually. Strategy 7: Encourage students to visualise concepts and procedures that they have learnt. Additional reading: NSW Department of Education (2018). Cognitive load theory in practice: Examples for the classroom. Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation, Australia  Forms of Constructivism Psychological Constructivism Social Constructivism concerned with individual Believes that that social interaction learners and how they construct shapes cognitive development and their knowledge, beliefs and is an essential component of the identity during the learning learning process process. social processes are integral to knowledge lies soley in the learning indvidual Vygotsky’s zone of proximal Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and the MKO development Bandura' Social Learning Theory  Key Principles Educators should recognise 1. Learners are active participants in their learning. the value of the ‘Learning by doing’ is central to constructivism in knowledge that students practice (Howe & Berv, 2000). bring to learning and 2. Learners are self-regulated. They construct and provide experiences that monitor their own learning, and metacognition plays an important role in facilitating this self- help students build on their regulation. current knowledge of the 3. Social interaction is necessary for effective learning world, whether as 4. Knowledge is subjective it may differ for each individuals or in social learner. Individuals make sense of information for groups. themselves (Bruner, 1990). (O’Donnell, 2012).  Constructivism in the Classroom 1. Learner-centred experiences and processes Spend time understanding students’ current constructions and checking the understandings constructed from their learning experiences. Acknowledge diverse cultural experiences and the development of personal ideologies Motivate students by acknowledging their interests Provide authentic and collaborative environments for learning Employ a range of instructional approaches, including direct instruction of knowledge, scaffolding and guided instruction Discovery learning Inquiry-based learning Problem-based learning Students discover meaningful Students use critical and creative thinking a student-centered approach in which connections in their learning. to develop their abilities to ask questions, students learn about a subject by This helps them make sense of, design investigations, interpret evidence, working in groups to solve an open- remember and apply what they form explanations and arguments, and ended problem have learned. communicate findings. Provide opportunities for them to explore their learning, problem solve, figure out 'how it works'  Constructivism in the Classroom 2. Provide opportunities for learners to work together Learning is a social process firmly rooted in the interactions, relationships, and shared experiences that take place within a 'Community of Practice' (Wenger, 1998) By working together in a social context, the learner not only brings their personal knowledge but is also influenced and shaped by that environment. The learning process is reciprocal among members of the group and knowledge is co-constructed. Cooperative learning Collaborative learning Peer-assisted learning Students working together to gain rewards Students learning together, drawing Students solidify their for themselves and their group. on one another’s knowledge and skills. knowledge by teaching each Group members elaborate on and provide Working together to solve problems, other feedback for one another’s ideas, building a complete tasks, or learn new joint understanding that is greater than concepts. what they could have produced individually.  Constructivism in the Classroom 3. Assist learners to develop expertise Constructivism aims to help novices develop expertise in a particular area of knowledge so that they become independent, autonomous and self-regulated learners. Cognitive apprenticeships Reciprocal teaching Skillful questioning Involves a master teaching an apprentice Teacher-guided strategy where Asking scaffolder questions to their skills. students work in collaborative teams boost student engagement, Students observe, practice, and enact and practising the comprehension improve understanding and new knowledge and skills taught by a strategies such as predicting, promote critical thinking. specialist (Rogoff, 1990). questioning, summarising and Students need to be encouraged Achieved through modeling and clarifying. to reflect on their construction of coaching. The teacher models the practices and knowledge. It also relates learning the social rules of then students emulate these strategies Teachers need to reflect on their the community, and the roles and places in their collaborative groups. practice and the learning context of different people in that community.  Selman's Self-Regulation and Emotional Competencies (1980) Self-regulation through the development Perspective-Taking Stages of emotional competencies/feelings Undifferentiated and egocentric (up to age 6) Allows us to understand other people's 1 Children primarily consider their own perspectives and struggle perspectives, behaviours and motivations, to understand others' feelings. thoughts and emotions. Differentiated and subjective (ages 5 to 9) 2 Children begin recognising that others have different viewpoints Stages/ age ranges overlap. Children but still struggle to step into their shoes. develop perspective taking ability at Second-person and reciprocal (ages 7 to 12) different rates. 3 Children can understand others' perspectives and can imagine how their actions affect others. Holly wants rescue a friend’s cat by climbing a Third-person and mutual (ages 10 to 15) tree. Climbing trees is banned by her father and 4 Individuals recognise that their perspective is one of many and she promised her father that she wouldn’t do it. consider the multiple viewpoints involved in a situation. In-depth and societal-symbolic (ages 14 and above) Should Holly be reprimanded by her father if Individuals develop an understanding of societal norms and 5 she climbs the tree to rescue the cat? expectations and consider their own actions in relation to these systems.  Feminist Ethics of Care Gilligan's 'Ethic of Care' (1982) Noddings' 'Ethic of Care' (1984) Emphasizes the importance of Focuses on the role of empathy, relationships and compassion, and nurturing in interconnectedness in moral ethical behavior. decision-making. https://www.youtu be.com/watch?v=4i aCpAFypq8  Gilligan's Theory of Feminine Moral Reasoning (1982) A revolutionary study focused on sex differences in moral reasoning. Emphasises Relationships Moral Dilemmas Challenges traditional Women tend to prioritise views of morality, arguing caring, harmony and that women's moral fulfilling the needs of reasoning often focuses others. While men's on care, empathy, and morality is centered in relationships. fairness. Ethical Decision-Making The ethics of care highlights the importance of understanding and responding to individual needs and responsibilities within interconnected networks.  Increased self- Significant emotional Heightened awareness consciousness changes, including mood of social interactions Personal swings independence Identity and role exploration Development of sexual identity Establishment of own values systems Perspectives on dignity and equality Psychological rights Dimensions of Increasing autonomy from Imaginary audience Adolescence family Ability to absorb Emergence of perspectives or abstract thinking viewpoints of others Adolescent egocentrism Emergence of skills and Importance of peer coping strategies to Increased relationships and overcome problems and introspection intimacy crises.  Adolescent Health Improved fitness, healthy weight, improved cardiovascular health Physical Activity Reduced risk of chronic diseases Enhanced mental health. Participation in sports for teamwork, discipline, and social interaction Improved mood and overall well-being Meeting the nutritional demands of puberty- fruits, vegetables, whole Balanced Diet grains, and lean protein Supporting healthy growth and development Increased nutrient intake, especially protein, calcium, and iron, to support bone development and energy production. 8-10 hours of sleep per night to support their physical and cognitive Sleep and Rest development, hormone regulation, and overall well-being Chronic sleep deprivation can lead to decreased academic performance, mood disorders, increased risk of obesity and other health issues  Physical Appearance and Body Image Body Image This refers to how individuals perceive and feel about their physical appearance, which can significantly impact self- Social Influences esteem and mental health Peer pressure, media during adolescence. portrayals, and cultural ideals often contribute to Self-Acceptance unrealistic body Developing a healthy body standards, impacting image involves recognizing adolescents' body image and appreciating one's and self-worth. individuality and embracing a diverse range of body shapes and sizes, fostering self-acceptance and positive self-esteem. The Adolescent Brain The brain is highly adaptable and malleable, undergoing significant changes in structure and function. It's a period of intense learning, exploration, and self-discovery. Adolescents are developing abstract reasoning, problem-solving abilities, and a deeper understanding of complex concepts. Socio-cultural Development Socio-cultural factors shape children's development Teachers need to recognise, support and navigate diverse learner's; unique needs perspectives challenges Individual Differences Diverse Backgrounds Students vary in their learning Students come from a wide styles, interests, and abilities. range of cultural and Effective teaching requires socioeconomic backgrounds, acknowledging and adapting for these shape their needs and these. experience of education. Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (1979) An individual’s development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings to broad societal structures. Environmental factors influence student outcomes including development learning behaviour and wellbeing individual characteristics (socio-economic status, temperament, mental health). The theory is shaped by four elements Person- individual characteristics Process- activities, relationships, interactions Context- human and non-human/ environments Time- stability, instability and changes  Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (1979) Microsystem The immediate environment, such as family, school, and peers, that directly influences a child's development. Mesosystem The interactions and connections between the different microsystems in a child's life. Exosystem The social settings that indirectly impact a child, such as the parent's workplace or community resources Macrosystem The broader cultural, societal, and ideological forces that shape an individual's development. The impact of cultural beliefs, values, customs, and social norms on development. Chronosystem https://www.youtube. All of the experiences that a person has had during his or her lifetime, com/watch?v=g6pUQ including environmental events, major life transitions, and historical events. 4EDHeQ https://education.nsw.gov.au/content/dam/main-education/student-wellbeing/attendance-behaviour- and-engagement/media/documents/An-ecological-perspective-on-behaviour-fact-sheet.pdf