Developmental Psychology Module 2 PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 EVA EVANGELIO- PACAYRA, PhD.,RPsy THEORETICAL FOUNDATION Theory- a set of assumption, propositions, or accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or rational explanation of events - Theories will enable us to describe, exp...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY MODULE 2 EVA EVANGELIO- PACAYRA, PhD.,RPsy THEORETICAL FOUNDATION Theory- a set of assumption, propositions, or accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or rational explanation of events - Theories will enable us to describe, explain, predict, and control a situation. Instruction: You will be taking a quiz at the end of this module, FAMILIARIZE yourself with the items in the quiz so that you will be sensitive to the answers as you go on with the Lessons in Module 2. Quiz on Module 2 Theoretical perspectives.docx Objectives: present and discuss the key theoretical perspectives in developmental psychology. use a specific theory to explain real-life examples of human behavior from a developmental perspective. M2 L1- COGNITIVE THEORIES Cognitive development theories attempt to explain how we gain know-what and know-how about the world as we progress from infancy through adulthood.  I. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world. Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and environmental events, and children pass through a series of stages.  Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways. Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge. The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view. GOAL OF THE THEORY To explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. I. Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years GOAL: Object Permanence (knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation/schema of the object). SCHEMA In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.  Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards' filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information. Examples of Schemas A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes: - looking at a menu, - ordering food, - eating it and - paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script.’ Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation. NEONATAL SCHEMAS The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate. Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us. REFLEXES Sucking reflex- which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.’ Grasping reflex- which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or Rooting reflex- in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking. I. Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years - during this stage the infant focuses on physical sensations and on learning to co-ordinate his body. - At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear. Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years During this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object permanence. If it cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.  II. Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years GOAL: Symbolic Thought (Language starts to appear because they realize that words can be used to represent objects and feelings). the thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning. the child does not understand that quantity remains the same even if the appearance changes. - Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. - Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself. A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought. Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classify objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s. III. Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 years GOAL: Logical Thought (children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them). Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 years During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events. Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same. During this stage, children can mentally reverse things During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. IV. Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up - GOAL: Scientific Reasoning (the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning). During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses. This stage sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem. Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up - As adolescents enter this stage, they gain Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints. Learning Theories: I. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Dog) - also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning - is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. - In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. PRINCIPLES Neutral Stimulus - a neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that initially does not evoke a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) US- is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response (Example: Food) - In Pavlov’s experiment the bell was the neutral stimulus, and only produced a response when it was paired with food. Unconditioned Stimulus is a feature of the environment that causes a natural and automatic unconditioned response. In Pavlov's study the unconditioned stimulus was food. Unconditioned Response is an unlearned response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented. Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions Conditioned Stimulus is a substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an organism as an unconditioned stimulus. Simply put, a conditioned stimulus makes an organism react to something because it is associated with something else. For example, Pavlov’s dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell. Conditioned Response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was the conditioned response to the sound of a bell. Acquisition In the initial period of learning, acquisition describes when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Extinction In psychology, extinction refers to gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli. For example, when the bell was repeatedly rung, and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell. Spontaneous Recovery is a is a phenomenon of Pavlovian conditioning that refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time following extinction. For example, when Pavlov waited a few days after extinguishing the conditioned response, and then rang the bell once more, the dog salivated again. Generalization In psychology, generalization is the tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, if a dog is conditioned to salivated to the sound of a bell, it may later salivate to a higher pitched bell. Discrimination is a process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one. For example, eventually Pavlov’s dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell. Stage 1: Before Conditioning: In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet. Stimulus-Response For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).  This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Example: A sound or a song When it is initially presented, the neutral stimulus has no effect on behavior. As it is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (is a stimulus that leads to an automatic response) it will begin to cause the same response as the UCS Stage 2: During Conditioning: During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response/no effect on a person (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus (unlearned response) at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).  For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus (being associated with- chocolate) should occur before the unconditioned stimulus (leading to automatic response- food, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus. Stage 3: After Conditioning: Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR). For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a response of nausea (CR).  The most famous example of classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov's experiment with dogs, who salivated in response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog learned to associate the sound with the presentation of the food. He first presented the dogs with the sound of a bell; they did not salivate so this was a neutral stimulus. Then he presented them with food, they salivated. The food was an unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.  He then repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the food (pairing) after a few repetitions the dogs salivated when they heard a sound of the bell, the bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned response. Cue Reactivity is the theory that people associate situations (e.g. meeting with friends)/ places (e.g. pub) with the rewarding effects of nicotine, and these cues can trigger a feeling of craving. These factors become smoking-related cues. Prolonged use of nicotine creates association between these factors and smoking. This is based on classical conditioning. Classroom Learning If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia. For example, if a student is bullied at school, they may learn to associate the school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher. CRITICAL THINKING Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment and supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment). Treatment of Phobia SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION - The individual with the phobia is taught relaxation techniques and then makes a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frightening features of the phobic object. He then is presented with the stimuli in that order and learns to associate (classical conditioning) the stimuli with a relaxation response. This is counter conditioning. Strength A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it's based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments. For example, Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell. Weakness A final criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic. This means that it does not allow for any degree of free will in the individual. Accordingly, a person has no control over the reactions they have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia. The deterministic approach also has important implications for psychology as a science. Scientists are interested in discovering laws which can then be used to predict events. However, by creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny. OPERANT CONDITIONING (RAT) also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning normally attributed to Burrhus Frederic Skinner, where the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated. Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior which is punished will occur less frequently. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning. Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement- behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened). Type of Responses: Neutral Operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. Positive Reinforcement a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you additional 5 points each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. Negative Reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. Punishment (weakens behavior) Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior. Problems with using Punishment Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school. Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do. Schedules of Reinforcement 1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked). 2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up). (A) Continuous Reinforcement An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off. - Response rate is SLOW - Extinction rate is FAST (B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly. - Response rate is FAST - Extinction rate is MEDIUM (C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off. Response rate is MEDIUM Extinction rate is MEDIUM (D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing. - Response rate is FAST - Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability) (E) Variable Interval Reinforcement Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times. - Response rate is FAST - Extinction rate is SLOW Behavior Modification Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones. This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically bribery. Types of Positive Reinforcements: Primary reinforcement is when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer. Token Economy It is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers). Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior. Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However, the patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prison, hospital, etc. Behavior Shaping Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time. The conditions required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior. Educational Applications Operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance. A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced. Educational Applications For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class, they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised. Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave. NOTE: Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g., operant conditioning. NOTE: The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain ways. We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place. B.F. Skinner argued that people’s behavior was always controlled by the environment. That people were nothing more than passive recipients of environmental influences. Critical Evaluation Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical application (such as token economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals. However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals. Behavior Modification All behavior is maintained, changed, or shaped by the consequences of that behavior.  All children function more effectively under the right set of consequences. Reinforcers- are consequences that strengthen behavior. (Increase the Behavior) Punishments - are consequences that weaken behavior. (Decrease Behavior) CONSEQUENCE MATRIX Stimulus Type Supply a Stimulus Remove a Stimulus Appetitive Positive Negative Punishment Stimulus Reinforcement (Not allowing to take recess) (Something desired) (Praise) WEAKENS BEHAVIOR STRENGTHENS BEHAVIOR Aversive Stimulus Positive Punishment Negative Reinforcement (Spanking) (Nagging) (Something not WEAKENS BEHAVIOR STRENGTHENS BEHAVIOR desired)  Research shows that positive consequences are more powerful than negative consequences for improving behavior.  Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and resentment. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Reciprocal Determinism) Reciprocal determinism is a central concept of Albert Bandura's SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. Also known as Triadic Reciprocality- reciprocal determinism is a model composed of three factors that influence behavior: the individual (including how they think and feel), their environment, and the behavior itself According to Albert Bandura, not only does the environment influence a person’s thinking, but their subsequent behavior influences their environment. In other words, the environment influences how a person thinks and feels, which in turn influences their behavior, which impacts the environment, and so on. Behavioral Factors According to the concept of reciprocal determinism, a person's behavior is influenced through cognitive processes and environmental factors such as social stimuli. For example, say a child acts out because they don't like school. This results in the teacher reprimanding the child, which may cause the child to act out even more. Behavior refers to anything you do that may be rewarded or punished. Environmental Factors The environmental component refers to the context in which the behavior occurs. More than a person's physical environment, this includes their social environment as well. Specifically, what people are present (or absent) and the attitudes, beliefs, and ideas these people hold. A person's physical and social environment influences the intensity and frequency of the behavior, just as the behavior itself can have an impact on the environment. Personal Factors The individual component includes all the characteristics that have been rewarded in the past. Personality and cognitive factors play an important part in how a person behaves, including all the individual's expectations, beliefs, and unique personality characteristics. The behavior itself is something that may or may not be reinforced at any given time or situation. If the previous student knows that their teacher is more likely to reward them if they wait the end of the school day to misbehave, they'll likely tailor their behavior. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING