Earth Sci LT 1 (2) PDF

Earth Sci LT 1.1 Reviewer Rianna Roque- 11J —------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE - Devine Creation God made everything...

Earth Sci LT 1.1 Reviewer Rianna Roque- 11J —------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE - Devine Creation God made everything No scientific evidence - Big Bang Theory Is the leading explanation Created by Georges Lemaitre in 1931 summary: states the universe started as a single, dense, hot point that expanded to what it is today Proof a. Hubble’s law (1929): The farther away the galaxy, the faster it moves away - Vesto Slipher’s Redshift Discovery: galaxies' spectral shifts move toward red which means it's going farther - Hubble: Created the telescope and discovered that the universe is more vast than originally thought b. Cosmic Microwave Background: remnant glow of the beginning of the expansion of the universe Time Line a. Inflation: almost immediately quarks (made of energy strings) formed b. First Particles: quarks came together and formed protons and neutrons. Dark matter and electrons also formed. c. First nuclei form: protons and neutrons come together to form nuclei. This is called nucleosynthesis - Helium (2 protons and 2 neutrons) and hydrogen ( just a proton) form d. First light: after 380, 000 years since the start, the first atom, hydrogen, was formed. It was the simple union of a proton and an electron - Light elements: atomic num is less than 11 - Heavy elements: atomic num is more than 11  Stellar nucleosynthesis: Light nuclei combine in the interior of stars due to their high density and temp, eventually creating heavy elements e. Dark Ages: space was empty until it reached 300 mil years old f. Gravity: as the universe continues to expand and cool, places of high-density form, and due to high gravitational attraction, it collapses into a star. Gravity brings stars together along with gas, dark matter, and dust, making galaxies g. Antigravity : the universe expands faster h. Today: the universe is 13.7 bil yrs old and still expanding SOLAR NEBULA THEORY - By Alastair G.W. Cameron - A nebula (cloud of light elements/mostly gas and dust) receives shockwaves due to the explosion of a star (supernova), making it spin faster and denser. Gravity pulls everything towards the center, creating a hot dense core, a proto-star (only considered a star when it undergoes nuclear fusion). The disk/cloud surrounding it is composed of leftover gas and dust, rocks ice, etc. clumps up to become protoplanets. 1. A nebula (cloud of light elements/mostly gas and dust) receives shockwaves due to the explosion of a star (supernova), making it spin faster and denser. 2. Gravity pulls everything towards the center, creating a hot dense core, a proto-star only considered a star when it undergoes nuclear fusion, which is the conversion of hydrogen to helium, releasing heat and light). 3. The disk/cloud surrounding it is composed of leftover gas and dust, rocks ice, etc. clumps up to become protoplanets. Become planets when they are big enough to stop colliding with each other when orbiting the sun and hold a spherical-like shape. They also have to clear their orbits. SOLAR SYSTEM - Planets A. Terrestrial: has a surface due to the gasses being cooked away, leaving rock, as they’re closer to the sun 1. Mercury: fastest, smallest, closest to the sun, doesn't rotate 2. Venus: hottest, rains acid, named after goddess of beauty as it’s the brightest from earth 3. Earth: means soil and has a similar size and structure as Venus  4. Mars: is brown due to the rusting of its iron composition, is habitable but has a thinner atmosphere than us, has water B. Jovian: no surface Gas (made of He, and H) 5. Jupiter: biggest, has the largest typhoon (red spot), has small dust rings 6. Saturn: has big rings made of gas and dust Icey (made of C, O, N, Si) 7. Uranus: spins and lies on its side due to getting hit by another planet 8. Neptune: farthest, has the strongest typhoon (blue spot) - Life Cycle of a Star: (becomes a massive, heavier star when more resources are in its nebula) A giant forms when a star runs out of hydrogen, causing the core to shrink, have more pressure, and heat up, and the outer layers to expand and cool, making the star much larger and redder. A planetary nebula forms when the dying star gently sheds its outer layers, which form a beautiful cloud When the core of the former red giant has exhausted all of its fuel and shed all the gas it can. Is considered dead. A supernova happens when a star runs out of fuel and explodes, either because a big star’s core collapses due to pressure and gravity or a white dwarf in a pair of stars suddenly bursts. All that remains is the core which can collapse in upon itself and become a black hole (the core had a higher density) or neutron star - Layers of the sun - Radiative: light travels/ energy moves out - Convective: density low enough to convert light to heat. Hot plasma rises and cools, then sinks back down, creating convection currents. - Chromosphere: temp is low enough for hydrogen to radiate color. visible during a solar eclipse - Photosphere: Where we see light - Moon a rock that revolves around the planets Earth’s natural satellite, formed about 4.5 billion years ago. Covered with craters, mountains, and plains, with no atmosphere or liquid water. The Moon controls the tides by pulling on Earth’s oceans with its gravity, causing the water to bulge out toward the moon on one side (tidal force). The earth kinda squishes casing it to bulge on the other side too. The top and bottom will have less water as a result, creating high and low tides. - Spring tides: Happens after the new moon When the sun, moon, and Earth are all lined up, the sun's tidal force works with the moon's tidal force. This means that high tides are a little higher and low tides are a little lower than average. - Neap tide: during the quarter moon phases when the Sun and Moon are at right angles to each other, making their gravitational forces work against each other, leading to weaker tides. Solar eclipse Lunar eclipse: Earth's shadow falls upon the surface of the Moon, dimming it and sometimes turning the lunar surface a striking red  Phases of the moon MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 1. Revolution: the earth takes 365.242 days to complete a revolution - Kepler's law of planetary motion a. The orbit is an ellipse b. Law of area: the earth revolves faster when closer to the sun c. Law of period: The Law of Periods says that planets farther from the Sun take longer to go around it than closer planets. 2. Rotation: Takes 24 hours for the planet to do a full spin. This is why we have day and night - Summer solstice: the longest time of daylight due to the earth tilting towards sun - Winter solstice: shortest time of daylight due to the earth tilting away from the sun - Spring equinox: day and night are equal - Fall equinox:day and night are equal 3. Precession: Change in direction of the planet’s rotation axis/ tilt. Changes countries' location and happens every 26,000 years EARTH SUBSYSTEMS 1. Geosphere - Crust: thinnest - Mantle: plastic-like - Core: The outer is molten metal and the inner is solid due to heat and pressure 2. Atmosphere: layers of gasses surrounding the earth. Mainly composed of nitrogen then oxygen. 3. Hydrosphere: bodies of water 4. Biosphere: The regions of Earth where living organisms exist, interacting with other subsystems to sustain life. ATMOSPHERE DEEP DIVE - A subsystem of the earth that is composed of gasses, mainly nitrogen, that surrounds the planet - It regulates temperature, protects us from foreign particles, and allows us to breathe. - Formation: Earth releases trapped gas (outgassing) water vapor in the atmosphere condensed into rain which filled the basins that we now know as our world's ocean Photosynthesizing organisms called cyanobacteria spawned and the air became toxic due to the excess oxygen they were releasing. Cyanobacteria eventually developed competitors to control their population, and therefore oxygen was released into the air. Geological processes also started occurring, causing the earth to form its structures. And the earth kept evolving and changing into what it is today - James Hutton: "Father of modern geology" Stated that the Earth’s features are slowly formed through consistent processes like erosion, over long periods of time. This contrasts/goes against catastrophism,  which states that the Earth’s features were created quickly/suddenly by dramatic events. - The thinner the air = less molecules= less pressure - More atom collision= friction= heat (but u also have to take composition into account) - Layers 1. Troposphere where weather occurs. Temp decreases. 2. Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer. Temperature increases 3. Mesosphere: Meteorites burn up here due to friction. Temperature decreases and is the coldest. 4. Thermosphere: Aurora occurs. Temperature increases. 5. Exosphere: Outermost layer, transitions into space. Low gas density and hottest layer. LIVING ORGANISMS - Characteristic of Life 1. Cellular organization: All that's living should be composed of cell/s - Unicellular: an organism with one cell - Multicellular: an organism with many cells - Prokaryote: organisms usually only have one has a cell wall mostly The cells have no nucleus to store DNA - Eukaryote: organisms usually have many Can often not have a cell wall (that's why our body is soft) and are bigger The cells have a nucleus to store DNA Plant vs animal cells - Plant: has Chloroplast which produces energy through photosynthesis and oxygen-release processes, which sustain plant growth 2. Reproduction: can sexually or asexually reproduce, and pass down DNA  3. Growth and development: Throughout time the body of the organism will grow and be more complex and it will also learn the skills needed to survive 4. Evolution: Natural Selection happens so the species will survive in its environment 5. Homeostasis: The body regulates and defends itself 6. Metabolism: Uses stuff for energy - Producer: makes its own food [ex. Photosynthesis: light is used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into sugar (food) and oxygen (released) ] - Consumer: takes 10% of energy from the organism eaten 7. Response to Stimuli: respond to the environment and situation to survive 8. Shouldn't need a host - Why Earth Supports Life 1. It has water - Goldilocks/habitable zone: region around the star where water can be on its surface (includes venus, earth, mars) 2. Optimal distance from the sun: we don't get cooked or freeze 3. Mild climate: weather that is neither too hot, too cold, too humid rainy, or sunny all the time 4. Biodiversity: Maintains balance 5. The Atmosphere: Protects us and lets us breathe 6. Magnetic Feild: protects our planet from cosmic radiation, from the charged particles emitted by our Sun 7. Plate tectonics: Allows heat from Earth's interior to escape and it forms oceans, continents, and mountains. EARTH’S ENERGY BUDGET - The balance between the amount of energy the sun gives and the energy that the earth gives back to space. Changes in the energy budget have big impacts on climate and weather. - Systems: The earth is an open one as energy (ex. heat) and matter (ex. oxygen) can enter and leave 1. Open: matter and energy can go in and out 2. Closed: energy can go in and out  3. Isolated: nothing can go in or out - The earth gets hotter at 4-8pm as well due to the earth releasing heat back into space - Absorption (what happens to 81% of sunlight) The sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic rays (sunlight) The atmosphere, clouds, and Earth's surface absorb it. The molecules start to vibrate faster, making the temp rise Different surfaces absorb solar radiation to varying degrees; for example, dark surfaces absorb more than light ones. Greenhouse effect: the ability of greenhouse gasses to absorb - Reflection (what happens to 29% of sunlight) Some of the solar radiation is reflected back into space by clouds, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface. Cools the earth Albedo: Measure of reflectivity; surfaces with high albedo, like ice and snow, reflect more sunlight - Transmission Some gasses in the atmosphere absorb parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Things like visible light, however, can pass through, allowing us to see light and color and allowing plants to photosynthesize too. FOG, SMOG, VOG, HAZE  - Vog: Some of these particles and gases temporarily block enough sunlight to induce a brief global cooling period. WEATHER - Short-term, more specific Ex. It will be 30 deg tom and rainy - Factors affecting: 1. Temperature: Measure of heat energy in the atmosphere - convection current Heat causes molecules to vibrate and spread apart. Heat rises, causing less pressure and density Cold (less heat energy) air’s molecules don't spread out too much causing it to go down to take hot air’s place and make air denser. This air rushes down due to hot air going up -Heat index: combines air temperature and humidity to reflect how hot it feels to the human body. 2. Air Pressure: - It’s like the weight of the air pressing down on us. Imagine the air is a big blanket that covers everything. - High-Pressure Systems: Think of this as a big, heavy blanket pushing down. This causes the air to sink. When this happens, the weather is usually clear and calm. - Low-Pressure Systems: This is like a lighter blanket that’s not pushing down as hard. The hot air rises up and then cools, which can lead to clouds and sometimes storms. - Typhoon Often formed in the ITCZ (International Tropical Convergence Zone), where the north and southeast trade winds meet Warm water (26 deg up) evaporates into warm air and meets with cold air as it rises, causing condensation and the formation of clouds (happens more aggressively due to temp). Raindrops fall to Earth when clouds become saturated, or filled, with water droplets The rising steam and clouds leave behind a space where there’s less air pushing down. This makes the air pressure lower in that spot. More Air Comes In to fill up the low-pressure space, and cooler air from around the area rushes in towards it. The Earth’s spinning makes the air move in a swirling way around the low-pressure spot and boom big spinning storm! 3. Wind: - The difference in air pressure makes the hot air move north and cold south (Coriolis effect), creating wind. - The Earth spinning and rubbing against the ground also affects how the wind moves. - The wind carries heat, moisture, pollutants, and pollen to new areas and changes the weather. - Front: the boundary between two types of air masses Warm front: migrates over cold air - gradual temperature increases - ​Warm fronts cause warm air to gently slide over the cooler air. This lifting is more gradual and less forceful. - Because the warm air rises slowly, the is lighter and more continuous. Cold front: cold air pushes warm air up - The temperature drops fast. The rapidly rising warm air and the cooling that happens as it rises, creates strong winds, thunderstorms, and sometimes severe weather like heavy rain, hail, or even tornadoes.  - Breeze Sea Breeze: Occurs during the day when warm air from the land rises, and cool air from the ocean moves in to replace it. This breeze brings in moisture from the ocean, making it more humid. Land Breeze: Occurs at night when warm air from the ocean rises, and cool air from the land moves in to replace it. This breeze is typically drier, as it comes from the land. 4. Humidity https://youtu.be/wB3Yyq4xy_Y?si=7XEOghgoNu9Oqgqh - Amount of water vapor in the air Ex. It's hot so more water vapor will be in the air. If it cools down - Humidity influences the "feel" of the air - The air is like a sponge and hot air can hold more humidity than cold air as in cold air the water moves slower and has more time to condense, creating dew. Relative humidity goes up when the temp goes down (but absolute humidity is usually less). - Water condensing: dew point - Relative: the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the total amount of vapor that can exist in the air at its current temperature. - Absolute: amount of water vapor in the air CLIMATE - Long term, general Ex. seasons - Factors affecting it 1. Temperature  Solar Radiation: More sunlight= hotter - equator = more direct sunlight - higher latitudes= less sun exposure Geographic Features: Higher places have thinner air, making it easier for heat to escape, making it colder. - https://youtu.be/_4Yr4KmKDK4?si=Eeaz10tNlzjxnNcw Ocean Currents: Ocean currents can transport warm or cold water over long distances, affecting the temperature of nearby areas. Human Activities: people ruin natural environments and therefore processes - urban heat island effect, where cities experience higher temperatures 2. Precipitation Topography: air is forced to rise over mountains, it cools and releases moisture in the form of precipitation on the windward side (windward precipitation) Proximity to water: when a place is closer to water precipitation tends to happen more often due to the easier access to water Global wind patterns: movement of air from different places Ex. The Rainy Zone (ITCZ): a big band of air right in the middle of the Earth, around the equator. Air from the top and bottom meet. As this warm air goes up, it cools down and turns into clouds, which make a lot of rain. That’s why places near the equator, like rainforests, get a lot of rain. CLOUD FORMATION - Evaporated hot air rises and cools; air is saturated and water vapor condenses into clouds made of water droplets and ice crystals - Types of clouds 1. Cirrus: Thin, wispy clouds high in the sky, made of ice crystals, indicating fair weather or a change in weather. 2. Cumulus: Fluffy, white clouds with a flat base, associated with fair weather but can develop into storm clouds. 3. Stratus: Low, gray, blanket-like clouds that cover the sky, often bringing light rain or drizzle. 4. Nimbus: Dark, thick clouds associated with precipitation, commonly seen as rain or storm clouds (e.g., nimbostratus, cumulonimbus).