Perspectives in Sociology PDF

PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY 1. Structural Functionalism - Each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning as a whole. Society is seen as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and soci...

PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY 1. Structural Functionalism - Each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning as a whole. Society is seen as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order. Social Consensus or Cohesion - society is held together by social consensus or cohesion which means, members of society agree upon and work together to achieve what is best for society. Two Kinds of Social Consensus a. Mechanical Solidarity - arises when people in a society maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. (ex. Family of farmers, fisher folks, etc.) b. Organic Solidarity - arises when the people in a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs, and engage in varying types of work. (ex. Metropolitan societies) Types of Human Function (Robert Merton) a. Manifest Functions: intentional and obvious (Ex. Going to school to learn) b. Latent Functions: unintentional and not obvious (Ex. Going to school to make social connections.) 2. Symbolic Interactionism - considers the symbol and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how they interact with each other. (Ex. Symbols containing significant meaning to a certain group of people, emojis are the modern world’s most prevalent example of symbols containing a specific meaning) 3. Social Conflict Theory - views society as being composed of different groups that struggle over scarce resources- like power, money, land, food, or status. It is the sociological perspective would explain educational inequality, emphasizing the role of social structures and economic factors. Class Conflict (Karl Marx)- views society as having different classes based on their relationship to the means of production. Two Classes under Capitalism Bourgeoisie- owns the means of production. Proletariat- sells their labor to survive. SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT A. Cultural Variation - refers to the diverse social practice that different cultures observe. (Ex. Different customs of people living in cities, and in provinces.) B. Social Change - refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns, and cultural values and norms. Describes phenomenon of transformation and the ongoing process of redefining societal structures. (Ex. Industrial Revolution, Abolition of Slavery, Feminism, Martial Law, People Power) C. Political Identities- refers to a specific political party affiliation or partisan identity. For many voters, belonging to a political party is not simply a voting decision. ASPECTS OF CULTURE Culture - Is a complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws norms, artefacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society. It can be influenced by factors such as religion, language, and etc. Enculturation - A diffusion of one’s culture to another through diverse means, namely learning, imposition by force, and conquest, among others. Identity formation -the formation of the identity of an individual through his interaction with other people. (ex. Chinese foods and traditions. Korean language and culture.) Elements of Culture 1. Beliefs- the conceptions and ideas of man regarding his environment. 2. Symbols- anything that has meaning and represents something else (Kendall, 2013) 3. Language- a set of symbols that expresses ideas which enables people to formulate thoughts and communicate with one another. 4. Values- a sum of all ideas and concepts that is desirable in a particular culture. 5. Norms- a concrete set of rules and standards to be observed by man in his cultural setting. 6. Law- a rule/policy that governs the conduct of men which is mostly enacted by a sovereign power. Status -is any position that an individual can occupy in society. It is not a ranked position, but simply label that implies certain roles that must be performed.  Types of Status 1. Ascribed: it is given at birth or assigned later in life. (Ex. Age, sex, ethnicity, and membership in a family.) 2. Achieved: It is acquired willfully and consciously through effort, talent, decisions, and accomplishments. (Ex. being a top student, etc.) Aspects of Culture 1. Culture is Learned – the notion of enculturation. 2. Culture is Shared- it is not something that an individual alone can possess. 3. Culture is Cumulative- based on the knowledge and understanding gained from specific experiences. 4. Culture is Dynamic- It exists as a continuous process. 5. Culture is Diverse- It varies from society to society. 6. Culture is Communicated- it is communicated from one generation to another through language. 1. Mainstream Culture - includes the cultural patterns that are broadly in line with a society’s cultural ideas and values. a. Low Culture (Pop Culture) - includes the cultural behaviors and ideas that are popular with most people in a society. b. High Culture - refers to cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite. 2. Subculture: Refers to the cultural patterns that set apart a segment of a society’s population. 3. Counterculture: pushes back on mainstream culture to change how society functions. (ex. Feminism, LGBTQI Rights) Ethnocentrism -seeing one culture as superior to the other. It encourages the solidarity of a group in a negative way. Xenocentrism- It is characterized by a strong belief that one’s own culture is inferior to those which originate elsewhere. Xenophobia- It is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange. The fear of losing identity. The desire to eliminate the presence of the other group to secure a presumed purity. Multiculturalism (Cultural Relativism) - recognizes cultural diversity while advocating for equal standing for all cultural traditions. EVOLUTION IN A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT EVOLUTION - the theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change over time. Natural Selection - Individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment are more likely to survive, finding food, avoiding predators, and resisting disease. These individuals are more likely to reproduce and pass their genes on to their children. The Mesolithic Period - also known as Middle Stone Age, was the second part of the Stone Age. This age is characterized by the appearance of Microliths (small, bladed stone tools). The Neolithic Evolution - also called the Agricultural Revolution, marked the transition in human history from small nomadic bands of hunter-gatherers to larger, agricultural settlements and early civilization. Social Darwinism - The application of the principles of evolution proposed by Darwin to sociology and politics. This abides with the concept of Survival of the fittest and used it as a guide in societal progress. “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST” - a term coined by Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher who initiated a philosophy called ‘Social Darwinism’. The concept focuses on individualism and competition. Only The strongest are the most fitted to survive. SOCIALIZATION 1. Primary socialization -your first experiences with language, values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms of your society. 2. Secondary Socialization - the process through which children become socialized outside the home, within society at large. - This often starts in school. Resocialization - the process of developing a new set of norms, values, or beliefs by breaking down your existing identity and then using rewards and punishments to build up a whole new you. Nature vs. Nurture  a. Nature: genetic inheritance and other biological factors b. Nurture: generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception (the product of exposure, experience, and learning of an individual). Theories of Personality The Tripartite Psyche - according to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: 1. Id- the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). 2. Superego- concerned with social rules and morals—like what many people call their” conscience” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. 3. Ego- the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It is considered as the Self. Psychosexual Stages of Development 1. Oral Stage (0 – 1 year old): A child derives pleasure from oral activities, such as sucking, biting, and tasting. Too much or too little gratification can bring about an oral fixation for the adult individual. 2. Anal Stage (2 – 3 years old): The main source of gratification at this stage is the ability to control bladder movement and the elimination or retention of feces. 3. Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years old): the focus of pleasure is the genitals. Fear of punishment can lead to repression of feelings felt toward the opposite sex parent. Fixation at this stage may bring about sexual deviancy or weak sexual identity. Electra complex – little girls start to perceive their mother as rivals of their father’s affection. Oedipus complex – little boys start to perceive their father as rivals of their mother’s affection. 4. Latency Period (6 years to puberty): At this stage, sexual urges are usually repressed, and the individual spends most of his/her time interacting with same sex peers, engaging in hobbies and acquiring skills. 5. Genital Stage (Puberty onward): The focus at this Freud psychosexual stage is on the sexual urges that are reawakened and are directed toward opposite sex peers, with genitals as the primary source of pleasure. Theory of Cognitive Development 1. The Sensorimotor Stage The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations. Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence) 2. The Preoperational Stage Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. 3. The Concrete Operational Stage During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events. They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example. 4. The Formal Operational Stage The adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Stages of Psychosocial Development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust: From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt: Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they can initiate activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority: During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way. 8. Integrity vs. Despair: From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. George Herbert Mead's Theory of the Self - according to Mead, the self, the part of one's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image, emerges through social interaction. C.H. Cooley’s Looking Glass Self - Cooley argued that the self is a product of our social interactions with other people that involves three steps: 1. The imagination of our appearance to other people and associated feelings. 2. Imagining that others are evaluating our behavior. 3. We develop feelings and react to the imaginary evaluations of ourselves as objects. PERSONALITY IN THE PHILIPPINE CONTEXT PERSONALITY - It is the sum of behaviors, attitude, beliefs, and values that are characteristics of an individual. DEVIANCE - is a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law. Anything that deviates from what people generally accepts as normal. Types of Deviant Activities 1. Crime (Formal Deviance) -the violation of formally enacted laws (ex. Robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault). 2. Violations of informal social norms (Informal Deviance) - violation of norms that have not been codified into laws (ex. Wearing revealing clothes, doing inappropriate behaviors.) Sanctions Sanctions are imposed by society to regulate people’s thoughts and behaviors in ways that limit or punish deviance. This is also known as SOCIAL CONTROL. Merton’s Strain Theory of Deviance 1. Conformity: Acceptance of both societal goals and the means to attain them. 2. Innovation: Pursuit of goals through unconventional or deviant means due to strain. 3. Ritualism: Adherence to societal means while giving up on achieving societal goals. 4. Retreatism: Rejection of both societal goals and means, often leading to alternative lifestyles. 5. Rebellion: Active opposition to prevailing societal goals and means, with a desire to replace the existing social order with new values and goals. Control theory - suggests that strong bonds make people conform to norms and refrain from deviance. Cultural transmission - theory proposes that deviance is a learned behavior. Labeling theory - examines how individuals are identified as deviant.