Introduction to Sociology PDF

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? (L1) People do the same kind of things, but we are all individuals Modern paradox→ emphasis on the individual, but people are group animals Sociology: - investigates society in a systematic way - investigates human patterns of thinking, feeling and social action - looks...

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? (L1) People do the same kind of things, but we are all individuals Modern paradox→ emphasis on the individual, but people are group animals Sociology: - investigates society in a systematic way - investigates human patterns of thinking, feeling and social action - looks at how we can see the general in the special Sociology is the science of society 6 criteria for something to be a social problems (should have all these things) 1. Problem involves a lot of people 2. Private troubles 3. Accumulation of problems 4. Not temporary 5. Systematic causes 6. Fundamental values threatened Sociology vs common sense (Bauman) 1. Responsible speech: rules of responsible arguments 2. Size of the field: transcending your own social word 3. Making sense: explaining and interpreting human behavior by looking at the different figurations and institutions which people are embedded in 4. Defamiliarize: the ability to discuss the familiar and the obvious 2 types of problems - Sociological problems: logical problems, objective - Social problems: issue of valuation/action Sociology is divided into 3 levels MICRO→ family, friends MESO→ office, university MACRO→ government, country Differences with psychology - Psychology states problem mostly at individual level (gives individual explanation) - Sociology states problem mostly at societal level (gives social explanation) 1 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES PTO (empirical cycle) Problem= why? Theory= maybe because..? Observation= is the explanation true? Key questions of sociology It tries to explain all the social problems 1. Social inequality (MARX) 2. Social cohesion (DURKHEIM) 3. Rationalization (WEBER) WHAT IS THEORY? (L2) Ground rules P 1. WHAT or WHY question with question mark 2. Structured→ don’t be too general, be precise 3. Precise and unambiguous→ very precise on how you formulate your questions 4. True questions 5. Right order→ WHAT- question establishes what is the situation. WHY-question, that it implies the what question Specific order: 1) Descriptive question 2) Trend or comparative question These two include the WHAT question 3) Explanatory question 4) Test question, you need to test your theory/explanation 5) Application question, implies a more political element The social problem is seen as something to solve it, trying to establish if there are differences.. Ground rules T What is theory? It’s the preliminary answer to a why-question Explanation Two components 1. Law= actual theory→ L (on book is the proposition) 2. Condition→ C From explanation to prediction, we can predict a certain situation with science, but it’s not called prediction but hypothesis 2 RULE 1 theory→ use a deductive model Two elements for using theory - Deduction (testing theory), reasoning from general to the special I start with theory, i confirm hypothesis, i tend to do quantitative research - Induction (theory drafting), from special to general I start with data, i infer conclusions from my data, i tend to do quantitative research Why a deductive model? You can.. A. Check if there are errors in your explanation B. Derive new predictions C. You can test more precisely D. You can expand the theory Ground rules of theory 1. Explain and predict using a deductive model 2. Hypotheses must be refutable - Formulate firm hypotheses - Formulate testable hypotheses 3. Theory (hypothesis) should be as general as possible Ground rules O Ground rules concerning observation 1. Try to falsify your hypotheses and explanation (don’t constantly confirm your theory) 2. Reject theory when there is strong refutation 3. But maintain theory when not enough refutations 4. And do not reject theory before u have a new T 5. When support multiple theories: prefer most general T 6. Ask new questions 3 Sociology: different views on reality Ex: In an investigation you get 4 versions of the same story. Different paradigmata→ the Khun cycle Paradigma (perspective/worldview)→ a view upon society that steers scientific thinking and research: - From a theoretical stance - From a methodology point of view 4 paradigmata in sociology 1. Conflict paradigm (Marx) 2. Structural-functionalist paradigm (Durkheim) 3. Symbolic interactionistic paradigm (Weber) 4. Rational choice paradigm (Smith) Theory= statement about how facts are related, !! it’s a part of the paradigm Problems of paradigmata - Sociology is not detached from the position of the researcher in society, but is a part of it - This determines the view on society - There is no complete view/theory on how society works - Always partial and selective Science is not the truth, is finding the truth Agency & structure Agency is the freedom you have to act, not much structured Structure of people can do or can’t do Some paradigms focus on agency, other on structure Contemporary sociology tries to connect agency with structure HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY (L3) Pioneers: Order/conflict - Hobbes - Locke - Bentham Inequality/subordination - Ferguson - Millar Wealth - Smith 4 Why did these questions arise? - The rise of science→ people start to think more about the social word, before all was explained by using the figure of god - Discovery of america by Columbus - Social problems and conflicts (religious war, inequality) Order/conflict First one was Hobbes, “how is it possible that people live together peacefully?” with all the wars HOBBES' THEORY Is Hobbes right? - Test question - When is there a ruler→ less violence? Observation: yes Hobbes is still right, but it depends, also more authority→more violence LOCKE→ wherever law ends, tyranny begins He wanted to improve hobbes theory 5 The state uses violence against citizens, why? - In a state where the prosecutor also verdicts, there is more violence of the state against its citizens (suppression) - The more suppression, the higher the chance of revolts of citizens against the state When peace? Theory 1→ one ruler has all power= dictatorship (HOBBES) Theory 2→ division of power= democracy (LOCKE) Dictatorship has more suppression than democracy, but less violence between citizens, and transition to democracy leads to temporary increase in violence between citizens. BENTHAM→ deals with violence between citizens Improves hobbes theory - People want to have benefit and avoid cost, people do things when there is benefit Example: steal or not steal? Benefits: u get what you want, status, happiness Costs: punishment U steal when the benefits are higher than the cost When you have more laws, u increase the cost PROBLEM OF ORDER Inequality Question of inequality - 4 sub questions 6  1. To what extent are scarce resources (and rights) unequally distributed between groups of people? (ex: slaves) 2. Which scarce resources (and rights)? 3. Between whom? 4. Why does inequality exist? Inequalities: - Income - Good or bad health - Shorter life span when cancer for lower educated - Bonuses (CEO’s) → causes differences - Property (elite kids) - Discrimination migrants - Wage differences between occupations - Wage differences between academia FERGUSON Which scarce resource? - Capital (land, cattle), well-being (food, clothing, prestige Whom? - Undetermined, some more than others Why (inequality)? - society Matthew effect→ If u have nothing is difficult to find something, it’s easier to increase something that u already have MILLAR Philosopher, interested in what kind of rights have different people (subordination) Whom? Women-men, children-men, citizens-rulers, personnel - master More modern society, more equal the division of the rights. Wealth 7 SMITH Problem of wealth, why is one society wealthier than another? - Possession of natural resources - Protectionism - Size the market (explanation of Smith), more people working, so more production of resources Specialize can increase production (factories) Hypothesis→ large and free markets increase wealth for all (poor and rich) But are poor people better off, both relatively and in absolute terms? 2 forms of deprivation - Absolute deprivation→ no food - Relative deprivation→ is the experience of being deprived of something to which one believes to be entitled (like having a smartphone), or buying something from a certain brand Utilitarian individualism utilitarian = utility individualism = hypotheses on individuals GENESIS OF SOCIOLOGY (L4) Important thinkers: Simon, Spencer, Comte, Tocqueville, Spencer Changes in structures of societies→ from hunters to post-industrial societies Technology determines the type of society, technology is a solution for problems, but it also causes many problems. SOCIETAL CHANGES 1. Economic changes→ capitalism fasted the progress 2. Political changes→ french revolution, freedom, equality, solidarity, those concepts are still in a lot of parties, celebrating freedom 3. Developments in religion (churches) 4. Urbanization→ growth of cities And connected with the growth of economic changes is the growth of cities The enlightenment→ basic values (basis of society= social contract hobbes and locke) Elements that are essential - Freedom of arbitrary power (especially in new colonies in america, where uk there was the king, starting to question… vote who they want, one that they represent their rights) 8  - Freedom of speech (but rulers are still forbidden things that you can say, ex: Russia) - Freedom of association (free to organize a group of ppl, like parties or to do certain trades) - Freedom of trade - Freedom to realize one’s potential (idea that if your father is a farmer, you will become farmer, no you can become whatever you want, idea also of marx) Targets of rationalist criticism - Traditional religious systems of belief (church→ kept ppl ignorant) - Traditional authorities (against traditional societal violation) - Speculative thinking (try to find evidence for the things you say) Discovery of society 1. Start a modern science 2. Discovery of society→ society is the study of sociology 3. Sociology as study of society French revolution is also seen as progress, there was a conservative, the revolution is anarchy Revolution is the begging of the emancipation process We have a shift to thinking of individual to think about groups/society SIMON He was interested in the rights of the industrial society, the ruling of the church should be replaced by people of science, we have a shift of who is running society. Society is an independent study phenomenon→ you can study society, nature is visible, society is just something in our head, we can study society just as we study nature. Social sciences must adopt the methods from natural sciences. COMTE (father of sociology) Comte was interested in industrial society and the increasing division of labor, order, progress→ using science to improve the living condition of people, improve the welfare Order and progress Social statics→ the study of the conditions and preconditions of social order (stability) Social dynamics→ the study of human progress and evolution (social change) Sociology can discover social principles and these principles can be used for social reforms Law of the three stages 1. Theological stage→ everything is explained by god 9  2. Metaphysical stage→ explanation by abstract, philosophical speculation on the natural order, not based on empirical studies 3. Scientific stage→ scientific explanation by objective observations in a neutral way Three types of society 1. Aggressive military 2. Defensive military 3. Industrial labor Positivism - Understanding of the world based on scientific, empirical research - Based on the principles of natural sciences - Social phenomena are real (see Durkheim) - Discovering social laws that can be used for social change→ social engineering, predicting their behaviors Technocrats - Scientists and industrialists must lead the country - technical/rational solutions to social/political problems TOCQUEVILLE He was interested in industrial society and the rise of democracy, and what happened in the new country of America. Revolution is not a break, but has been building up for years Tocqueville does not support the revolution!!! Democracy of America - Examines this process in America - As a prelude to what France is waiting for Democracy= model of a society in which full equality has been achieved. Democracy= An unstoppable process - Centralization and rationalization of governance - Concentration and mechanization of the production process→ leads to greater social inequality Central problem: relationship between freedom and equality - Individual is up against central governement SPENCER He found the term of “survival of the fittest” 10 He is seen as a social-darwinist, he wants to apply rules of Darwin in society, like animals adapt to changes, as people - Apply evolution theory to society - Thinking in terms of progress - Great influence on american sociology Society as an organism In 19th century we see: - Rise of social-darwinist thinking - Civilization labour - Discipline - Education of the masses - Trust in science - The “sociale quaestie” (social question) The social question - Misery of urbanization and industrialisation - Rise of the labour movement - Reaction liberals confessionals→ well understood self-interest Research themes - Poverty - Division of labour - Class relations Academics and “do gooders” - Rise of the people - Social workers - Anti alcohol movement MARX, INEQUALITY & HISTORICAL MATERIALISM (L5) Inequality has always existed. People are not equal, so there will always be inequality, however - How much inequality is justified? - How much inequality will people accept? - inequality in what? - How is it handled? - What is the impact of inequality on society? Is inequality a social problem? 1. Strikes many people 11  2. Private troubles 3. Accumulation of problems 4. Not temporary 5. Systematic causes 6. Values threatened Is it scientifically interesting? Yes Important consequences of inequality - Health - Cohesion→ battle between rich and poor - Riots in Syria (repression) - Black lives matter movement Cause of inequality→ test of divergent theories MARX He was born in Germany, son of a lawyer, he was in an upper/middle family. He was constantly working and re-working his own ideas. Most famous work→ “The capital”, political economy ENGELS He didn’t study, he worked in a cotton factory, but then he started to write scientific articles. Engels and Marx used statistical data, looking for patterns. Their questions on inequality 12 The idea of Marx & Engels 1. Conflict between classes 2. History determines class conflict 3. Class conflict determines course of history Marx was using Hegel ideas’ → dialectics (the trinity of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis) → The thesis is a proposition, a statement The antithesis is the negation of the thesis as a response to the proposition put forward therein The synthesis resolves the conflict between thesis and antithesis by reconciling the common truths in both What is the fundamental nature of reality? Idealism: ideas (our minds) are reality par excellence Materialism: material basic structure of reality Hegel→ idealism: our mind makes the world (as it appears to us) exist Marx→ materialism: the external reality exists independently of our mind and the material relationships between people determine culture The communist manifesto Workers do not have any possession, someone else makes you work. Marx starts begging the trade-unions→ free association of workers Historical materialism Base→ economy Superstructure→ government, family, religion, education, culture Classical historical materialism a. In capitalist societies b. Wages of workers fall and profits of capitalists rise, c. Because labour can be replaced by machines (coercion) Workers and alienation Idea of alienation has to do with being detached from what you’re making, in the end you’re alienated from the human potential (be what you want), when working in factories you have no clue of what you’re doing, you can’t socialise with other workers. Commodity fetishism We tend to shop without realise that someone else made it 13 Reification 1) Develops Marx on alienation & commodity fetishism 2) reification= seeing as an objectively existing “thing” what are actually fluid and changing social relationships 3) Capitalist economy Either a “thing” with a life and mind of its own or fluid and changing social relationships, social conflicts and new social forces. 4) Aim of marxism: to break through reification; to identify social change, and encourage it Centralisation hypothesis a. In capitalist societies, b. The growing amount of capital concentrates within fewer capital owners, c. Because large owners can drive small owners out of competition Classical historical materialism a. In capitalist societies b. Wages of workers fal and profits of capitalists rise c. Because labour can be replaced by machines d. Against this coercion resistance arises e. If all workers are aware and unite, they win the conflict and private ownership f. And when the means of production are collective property, everyone will receive products according to their needs Class in itself→ workers so not question the status quo Class for itself→ workers become aware of their position Class consciousness→ realising that labourers belong to their own social class because they have common interests based on their shared economic position. Capitalism is digging its own grave Core historical materialism a. Whatever mode of production in a society prevails, b. Every inequality within that society, c. Is based on some sort of coercion d. This coercion leads to some sort of conflict e. Which can lead to the abolition of old means of coercion and the disappearance of old inequalities, f. And under certain circumstances, it will lead to quality A separate theoretical tradition? NO 14  - Economic - Rational people YES - People are not lone individuals, but part of society - People trapped in circumstances (structure) - Material base (ownership of capital) determines people’s lives People are trapped in a capitalist structure INEQUALITY & DEVELOPMENTS HISTORICAL MATERIALISM (L6) Sociology according to Marx - Analysis of classes and economic conflict - Class struggle between capitalists and proletariat - Class awareness - Worldview based on ideas that best suit material class goals - Contradiction: why do proletariat have the same ideas as capitalists? 1. Religion is the opiate of people 2. The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas 3. Suppression by dominant class 4. Proletariat has few means to form ideas itself - More workers who come together in cities and factories→ awareness Political science according to Marx - For Marx is important to see who is controlling the state, who has the power Economics - The value of a product is determined by the labour required to make it - Profit through the exploitation of labour - The law of declining profit - Competition among capitalists Replacing labour power with machines Machines do not generate profits (only human labour does) - Periodic economic crisis Fewer capitalists with greater market share Marx - a summary - Revolutionary activist→ focusing on inequalities - Capitalists vs proletariat - Historical materialism - Class battle 15  - Alienation Support for capitalism Engels - Documents of government - More industrial accidents - More child labour Marx - Government statistics UK - More poor people 1855-65 - Lower nutrition value meals - More profit per taxpayer Marx & politics CAPITALISM - private property - Profit - The market mechanism - Economically productive - Economic inequality SOCIALISM/COMMUNISM - All members of society are equal (public property, collective goals, plan economy) - Economically less productive - Less economic inequality - Equally bad for everyone Today there are large inequalities and bad working conditions Falsification of historical materialism - Growing workers wages under capitalism→ embourgeoisement thesis (rise of the middle class) - Low level of resistance and conflict - Growing inequality under socialism Core historical materialism a. Whatever mode of production in a society prevails b. Every inequality within that society, c. Is based After marx, there are 2 strength of the HM - Revisionism 16  - Orthodox Revisionism by Bernstein Shows how the middle class came up a. In capitalist societies (without strong political rights for workers) b. Wages of workers fall relatively, but rise absolutely c. Wages are rising absolutely because workers are higher educated, and less coercion can be exercised on higher educated people, but wages are relatively decreasing because education cannot completely erase coercion d. The conflict between workers and capitalists becomes a political conflict about rights. The more peaceful the conflict, the more successful, e. When workers unite in unions and parties, they get more political/social rights f. These rights will decrease the relative difference between wages of workers and capitalists Revisionism tries to explain why the position of the workers had improved Orthodoxy (reaction on revisionism) Colonialism a. When capitalist societies have colonies, and in this way are motherland on an empire b. Then the wages of workers in the motherland will increase absolutely, but decrease relatively, while the wages in the colonies decrease absolutely c. Because capitalists exercise more coercion on workers in the colonies and because own workers can “buy off” the workers in the colonies d. The search for colonies will lead to war between empires e. These wars will lead to the destruction of capitalism After WWII, we saw the end of colonialism, new explanation of what is happening in the world Modern revisionism: elite inequality BURNHAM a. In societies where capitalist goods are the most important means of production and where some people are owners, while others managers b. The profits of shareholders will decrease, while the wages of managers will increase c. Because the managers exercise coercion by threatening to quit their job Who controls the organization? 4 conceptions 1. Direct control→ the moment when the owner of the factory are in direct competition with other factories 2. Manufacturing control conception→ companies competing with each other on who has the best product 3. Commercial control→ difficult to compete on products, so you use marketing and advertising 17  4. Financial control→ separation between owners of the company and who actually work Piketty shows that working is less profitable than inheriting money SOMBART Why is there not socialism in America? a. In capitalist societies without a feudal past and where there is uncultivated land not in private hands b. More workers will start their own business, which increases their upward social mobility c. Reason: coercion capitalists can exercise on workers in countries with uncultivated land is weaker d. And the higher the social mobility in these societies, the less conflict between workers and capitalists, and the more the conflict will be peaceful WILEY a. In capitalist societies where more land is cultivated b. Debts of new farmers become more heavy, while interest is increasing c. Because farmers accept loans against unfavourable conditions for investment in their business d. This will lead farmers voting for political parties that endorse low interest rates and low taxes Conflict paradigm Perspective 1: conflict approach Social inequalities are typical for society; a society offers certain groups more advantages than other groups; the social relations are the result of a constant battle between parties, sometimes more openly sometimes covered. Key concepts: social inequality, stratification, power and struggle Critical conflict approach - Less objectivistic science - Less attention to shared norms and values DURKHEIM, SOCIAL COHESION & STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM (L7) Social cohesion→ to what extent do members of a society live together peacefully? Order vs violence live together peacefully Durkheim was born in France from a jewish family→ he grew up in a close, disciplined and solidarity environment. It was also a chaotic time (with wars, genesis and industrialisation) He was socialist and liberal, in favor of cautious progressive politics 18 Following Saint-Simon and above all Comte, Durkheim wants sociology to be an independent scientific discipline. - Difference with philosophy Empirical research vs philosophize Comparative research - Difference with psychology Influence of society vs individual as starting point Societies construct their own facts “Le suicide” Suicide is extremely individualistic, at most psychological causes→ food for psychologists and not sociologists, but… Suicide shows strong social regularities, people from the north of europe took their life more than people who live in the south of europe. Also as a fact of religion, protestant took their life more than jews. Why these regularities? Why in certain areas suicide rate is higher? It’s not bcs of depression, unemployment, rules/norms on suicide Durkheim explanation→ integration in a group - Catholics more integrated than protestants - Jews relatively strongest integration - Northern europe less integrated than southern europe The more people feel integrated the less people will commit suicide The stronger people are integrated in whatever intermediate group in society.. Intermediate group: - Group→ cluster of persons you are connected with - Intermediate→ Between state and individual - Function - Imposes values and norms on their members - Creates order - Connects individual with society - Stronger influence than the state Scheme of explanation a. A stronger cohesion is shown in a lower suicide rate b. Families and religious group are intermediate groups c. One of their norms is disapproval of suicide 19  d. The stronger members of a society are integrated in these intermediate groups, the more they will comply to the norm about suicide e. And the smaller their chance to commit suicide Core structural-functionalism a. Every society shows a certain cohesion, b. Showing by certain intermediate groups, c. And showing by certain general values and norms d. And the more integrated the members of this society are in intermediate groups, the more they comply to these values and norms e. Which results in stronger integration/cohesion Structural functionalism Structural - Groups= social structure - norms= “cultural structure” Functionalism - Groups & norms have a function for society Utilitarian individualism - Societies consist of individuals - Who pursue the highest utility on free markets - Which determines the behaviour of people Structural functionalism - Societies consist of groups - People have strong/weak ties to these groups - These ties influence the behaviour of people Durkheim expanded the problem of order - Society is more than just the sum of individuals, and it influences individuals - Functional dependency between people, we can’t live without each other Durkheim is still relevant today DURKHEIM, DEVELOPMENTS STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM(L8) How is social order possible? → why? - Durkheim was worried by the disruptive effect of the political and economic revolutions of the 18th and 19th century - Anomie→ high degree of absence of norms 20 Book: Le suicide - Research on suicide research: against psychological reductionism. Seems most individual act, but is socially determined - Suicide serves as a measure of social welfare or social crisis suicide is related to faith, civil status and political/economic situation - The stronger the social bond, the lower the suicide rate in a community - Durkheim distinguishes four forms of suicide 4 types of suicide - Altruistic suicide→ too much intregrated, give your own life for the sake of others (kamikaze pilots, suicide terrorists) - Fatalistic suicide→ too much regulation - Egoistic suicide→ not enough integration, protestants, unmarried people - Anomie suicide→ insufficient regulation (ex: after suddenly violent social changes), increased suicide after financial crisis in London Book: division of labour in society - Division of labour is the result of population growth (dynamic density) - Task differentiation is peaceful solution for the struggle for life - Social cohesion emerges very different in modern societies then in traditional societies - Two types of solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity Mechanical solidarity - Strong solidarity based on sameness - Hardly division of labour, everybody is does everything on its own - Collective conscience very strong - Where? Not much evolved societies (tribes, agricultural society) Organic solidarity - Basis: differences between individuals and groups - Result of (increasing) division of labour - Social cohesion: mutual functional dependence (we need other people - Collective conscience relative small, individual conscience relative big - Where: modern industrialised societies Two types of law Rules of society are codified in laws Societies characterized as mechanical solidarity: - Repressive law - retaliation, deterrence Societies characterized as organic solidarity - Resitutive law - restoring the normal course of events 21 Social functions of deviant behaviour Crime - Crime is “normal”, happens in every society - An act is criminal because it shocks the collective conscience - Crime enhances social cohesion by defining deviant behavior - Crime prevents rigidity of society and leads to changes Deviant behavior often harbinger of new morality Function of mortality - Core of societal problems: moral and social ties - Moral act: for the good of the collective and within the boundaries of socially accepted norms - Politics and science are servants of the ideal of a morally healthy society Socialisation of the individual - People are creatures with boundaryless desires, so society needs to establish boundaries - Socialisation Important part of the process of societal integration Important of the genesis of a collective conscience Causes the reproduction of homogeneity - A free man in his own master, but not someone who does whatever he wants - Individual becomes “real” thru socialisation Book: the elementary forms of the religious life - Religion for durkheim is seen as a social phenomenon and a source of common beliefs - Religion regulates behavior, and strengthens social cohesion - Difference between the profane and holy in every society +feelings and behaviors towards sacred objects the essence of religion (rituals) - Society and god are comparable (people need a moral authority) Developments structural functionalism 1. Parsons→ socialization theory He was an american professor, experienced the financial crisis and depression The stronger people of a society are socialised, the greater the chance that they will comply to the norms and values. 2. Merton→ anomie theory Someone who wants more pragmatic thinking - Combining theory and empirical validation - No status quo bias - No grand theory: theories of the middle range 22 Theories - Self-fulfilling prophecy: an originally false prediction becomes because people believe it to be true - Matthew-effect: the successful will become more successful Merton’s explanation USA more violence than EU, because - More anomie - Anomie= values on goals and norms to achieve this in a legitimate way are not consistent Value on goals: american dream Norms on legitimate means= work hard - Adaptation type for lower classes: crime Despite norm on crime Merton’s contributions to durkheim’s theory of anomie 1. Generalization→ anomie applied to crime 2. Improvement→ anomie socially/culturally determined (values→ socially determined 3. Expansion→ who is criminal? White collar crime White collar crime - Adjustment merton’s anomie theory necessary Original theory: unequal access to legitimate means Adjustment: + unequal access to illegitimate means - Hypotheses Original: lower classes commit more crimes than higher classes Adjusted: higher classes commit more financial crimes 3. Hirschi→ minor crime among youngsters He tries to establish: - Why is someone not becoming a criminal? - Lack of ties with conventional society Attachment Commitment Involvement Belief Social control theory proposes that people’s relationships, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs encourage them not to break the law 23 Hirischi’s theory of integration - Generalization integration theory Durkheim: application on petty crime of youngsters - Positive and negative version Evaluation of structural functionalism Pro’s - Social explanation of crime and suicide - Influence integration - Influence norms, and socialization - Influence anomie → A real sociological explanation Con’s - Importance of norms for a group neglected - Immunization (type of norm is difficult to measure) - Potentially circular WEBER, RATIONALIZATION & INTERPRETATIVE INDIVIDUALISM (L9) Key question→ how is razionalization possible? Weber’s starting problem→ what is characteristic of western society,and how can existence be explained? Razionalization: the replacement of traditions, values and emotions as motivators for behavior in society with concepts based on rationality and reason. Weber was a German sociologist, there were political tensions between socialists and army & aristocracy. Weber is mostly famous for separating politics from the role of research. He was born in a family of industrialists. His most important works are: - Methodology of social sciences - Economy and society - The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism Weber distinguish 4 different rational actions 1. Traditional 2. Affective 3. Wert-rational (value rational) 4. Zweck-rational (goal rational) Rationalization→ shift of traditional, affective, and ‘wert’-rational to ‘zweck’-rational 24 Ideal types of social action 1. Traditional: actions controlled by tradition or deeply rooted habits, “the way it’s always been done” 2. Affective: actions determined by the actor’s specific affections and emotional state 3. Value-rational: actions that are determined by a conscious belief in the inherent - ethical, esthetic, religious, etc. - value of a type of behaviour, regardless of its effect 4. Instrumental-rational: actions that are carried out to achieve a certain goal; the actor calculates which actions will lead in the best and most effective manner to the goal that’s been set Two forms of rational action 1. Goal rational action: dominant in economics 2. Value rational action: values and norms limit the rationality Problem of rationalization rationalization= actions of individuals and social institutions more and more based on zweck-rational considerations= 1. Better explanations 2. More adequate means to achieve certain goals 3. Goals more thought through modernization=rationalization? Modernization is a process of social change, razionalization is more specific Rationalization is a social problem? It could be Rationalization in the media Better explanations? - Climate rapport Adequate means? - Too many examples.. - Thoughtful goals 25 A social problem? It Depends from the point of view Rationalization does not seem to be a problem, but a blessing - Yet, some people lag behind - In some aspects Rationalization is a social problem because of relationship with - Inequality - Cohesion - As causes and/or consequences - Rational for who? Science and technology - Benedictines introduced fixed daily schedule - % illiterate decreased by rise protestantism - Merton: 12th century puritanism/methodism (UK) contribute to the rise of science & technology Rationalization of religion and fine arts There are ways of organize with rationalization religion and music Also drawing and painting, there is a move towards rationalization (ex. proportions) Formalization of the state Unique western system - Costituition - Laws - Officials - General rules Bureaucratization - Predictable regulations - Reliable money system - Guarantee for equal treatment Bureaucracy is rationalization and stimulates rationalization Modern society according to weber is very goal rationalization oriented 1. Separate social institutions 2. Large-scale organizations 3. Specialized tasks 4. Personal discipline 5. Time awareness 6. Technical skills (what can you do instead of who you are) 26  7. Impersonal relationships System versus people - System work according to protocols and procedures - Anonymity is central here, citizens become numbers/files - Citizen loses humanity (individuality or authenticity) through classification into groups/categories - Complaints, turn against the government Alienation It’s different from Marx alienation, you feel alienated from the society system Bureaucratisation leads to alienation - People are objects and not individuals - Jobs require specialism and are tedious - System of rules that threaten the human ‘spirit’ Disenchantment of the world Causes - Religion rejects magic - Science rejects divine powers - Modern technology breaks ties with traditions - Secularization of social life Secularization = religion less central in society - Division state-church - Less church attendance and less believers = demystification - Religion itself rationalized (less holy rituals) Negative consequences of rationalization - Problem of meaning Why and how to live? There is not a scientific explanation - Alienation Iron cage→ The iron cage of society is the idea that individuality will be stifled or imprisoned for the sake of acting rationally. Weber's iron cage was a metaphor for how society can become so focused on efficiency that it stifles freedom and creativity. Contributions Weber - Expands problem of wealth of Adam Smith - Brings rationalization under one heading - Answers a subquestion and develops a new theoretical tradition 27 Core Weber’s work: methodological essays - Value free sociology - Ideal-types - ‘Verstehen’ - Interpretative individualism Methodological essays: value free sociology - Dogma: thou shalt not commit a value judgement - Distinction between fact and value - Distinction between role researcher and advocate Methodological essays: ideal types An ideal type is an analytical construct that serves the investigator as a measuring rod to ascertain similarities as well as deviations in concrete cases. It provide the basic method for comparative study An ideal type is not meant to be a moral ideal. There can be an ideal type of brothel or a chapel. Used to develop hypotheses. Necessary for explaining (historical) developments Always deviate from reality They can change over time Example ideal type: politics & power Legitimacy of power Traditional Charismatic rational-legal Bureaucracy as ideal type 28 Methodological essays: verstehen Interpretation verstehen - Specific social science - Knowledge goal: understanding through interpretation - Focus on cultural significance - Preference for qualitative methods - Perspective of research is of great importance - Social goal: more effective management through a better understanding of social relationships Interpretative individualism - The unit of analysis is eventually the individual human and his actions - Humans are meaningful creatures - Social action: meaning action directed to others - Subjectivity of the individual - Society is a constant social interaction - Based on symbolic communication - Dependent of conditions/context of people’s life Weber’s theory Subquestion: rise corporate capitalism Corporate capitalism a. Organized production of goods in free markets b. Aimed at calculated and stable profit c. Accounting and reinvestment of profit Weber's thesis Why rise corporate capitalism in the west? Money, population growth, and free markets are important - People have more possibilities to produce more efficiently - But they are not sufficient factors People should also use the possibilities - Other factors are decisive for the usage Research tool: ideal types Ideal type corporate capitalism - Competition - Operate methodically Weber discovers with method of idea types that a. Economic factors ease corporate b. But also non-economic factors (ideas/ethics) 29 Weber discovers with a method of ideal types that.. - Societies with more protestants meet the criteria of the idal type of corporate capitalism - Thus: religion plays a decisive role in economy, protestant ethic accelerated corporate capitalism Core interpretative individualism a. Every highly developed pre- or early modern society b. Has a certain religion c. With a certain world view d. This world view imposes on the members of this society a certain life goal e. And encourages them to achieve these life goals with certain means f. And the more activistic this world view is, the more practical-rational the lifestyle of the members of society, and the more they will use the possibilities to produce goods efficiently How to determine world views - Not in doctrines - But in stories about important people - And their role between god and the earth - Understand people→ verstehen Interpretative individualism Interpreting/verstehen - Focus on meaning/interpretation that people give to their actions/their beliefs Why do people work hard? - Hard: for money - Soft: for the honour of god Explanations complex and multiple - To understand people and situations Humans attribute meaning to actions Society is an ongoing process of (symbolic) interaction between individuals Understanding behaviour requires understanding individuals’ interpretation of their actions Rationalization is a new theoretical tradition Similarities with HM - Influence of (material) circumstances - Conflict between classes Differences - More about controlling scarce resources - More complex T of stratification: class, status and party 30 INTERPRETATIVE INDIVIDUALISM & MCDONALDIZATION (L10) Findings pro (support Weber’s idea) 1. Earlier stricter form of protestantism in countries→ earlier capitalism in these countries 2. Protestants higher occupational position and more often entrepreneur than catholics 3. Success of the German economy in the past decade due to protestant work ethic? Findings con (does not support weber’s idea) 1. NL: 17th century (golden age): spending protestants 2. GER: bayern (catholic) highest incomes 3. After WOII: non-church members highest profession 4. Secularization and further growth of corporate capitalism? Secularization = religion less central in society - Division state/church - Less church attendance and less believers = demystification - Religion itself rationalized To sum up→ protestant ethic good explanation of growth corporate capitalism, but protestant ethics not a good explanation for rationalization after WOII→ secularization NEW QUESTION→ why more rationalization during secularization? Possibilities: RAT processes→ more RAT→ more possibilities corporate capitalism Mentality→ world views also present in people without religion→ for instance scientific worldview= even more activistic Immunization theory Possibilities and mentality may explain everything bureaucracy the example of modernity bureaucracy = ideal type Weber: characteristic bureaucracy Will ask in the exam ¾ criteria not all in the essay question 1. Specialization - A bureaucracy gives individuals highly specialized assignments 2. Hierarchical organisation - A bureaucracy uses a vertical organization, each employee is headed by higher-ranking employees and supervises lower-placed employees 3. Rules and regulations 31  - The functioning of bureaucracy is governed by rationally determined rules and regulations. Under ideal circumstances, bureaucracy can operate completely predictably. These rules are easily transferable. 4. Technical competence - Employees have the technical competence they need to perform their tasks→ specific training requirements. 5. Impersonality - A bureaucracy applies the rules without regard to persons: an impersonal approach→ faceless bureaucrat. 6. Formal, written information - The functioning of bureaucracy does not depend on direct contacts between people but on formal memos and reports that are kept in enormous archives. Problems of bureaucracy Bureaucratic alienation - Reducing people to a cog in the machine Mcdonaldization Mcdonaldization of our daily life is the process where principles of fast food business increasingly influence aspects of american and global society, by George Ritzer Relation to social theory Ritzer uses 2 classical sociologists - Modernization of the thesis of rationalization (Weber) - Human potential (Marx) Bottom line of Ritzer’s critique of culture: people can change Weber: iron cage of rationality Two forms of rational action: 1. Value-rational (you do something because you think it is important) 2. goal -rational (you do things as efficient as possible, cost/benefit analysis) Emphasis on goal rational action→ iron cage - Existential problems - Alienation Marx: human potential People make history Class struggle between: workers (proletarians) and capitalists→ revolution 4 aspects on mcdonaldization 1. Efficiency→ reaching the goal in the most efficient way 2. Calculability→ bigger=better. Quantity= quality→ quality= calculable 3. Predictability→ prevent surprises 4. Control→ trying to manage the behaviour of people 32 SOCIOLOGY OF DAILY LIFE SIMMEL (L11) Sociology of daily life Our current era - life= uncertainty - Rapid technological change - Impact on everyday life→ internet, smartphone.. - Work: no fixed contracts - Love: no long term relationships Simmel is closer to our lives, then Marx, Weber and Durkheim - Focus on everyday life of urban life Simmel was born in the same period of Weber, in Berlin. He hadn’t have an ordinary academic career, but many followers→ Simmel is an outsider (also Marx) Another reason why is an outsider he doesn’t have a fixed theme. There isn’t a central theory, his work is fragmented - Conflict theory - Small group research - Exchange theory - Microsociology - Sociology of the daily life - It is about the relationship between the individual and the wider society - One of the founders of the symbolic interactionism Simmel: formal sociology - The study of the central, organizing configurations of interactions - The goal is to achieve a kind of geometry of social life Simmel on sociology - Sociology as not completely finished and structured doctrine - Deals with specific phenomena within society - Community: web of different affiliations between individuals - Unravel relationships between people on a microscale - People observe each other as types - Individuals interact with each other by instincts o to achieve certain goals and thus arises unity (society) Central question of Simmel How is society possible? - Simmel suggests society consists of a web of patterned interactions, and that it is the task of sociology to study the forms of these interactions as they occur and reoccur in diverse historical periods and cultural settings. 33 Simmel’s view on society Contradictions - Individual versus society - Content versus form Dynamics - Individual/content: creative, unpredictable - society /form: stable/.. Social relations (forms) and social types Social relations (→ forms): super-ordinate/sub-ordinate conflict/cooperation distance/intimacy social/individual Social types: Competitor Miser Adventurer Stranger Example: the stranger Both outsider and insider Distance and engagement Physically close, but mentally remotely Does not know the social nuances of the group Therefore “more objectively” And is also sometimes more familiar than other group members Type→ stranger Form→ strangeness Groups Simmel introduced analytical categories to reflect on groups. As the group size increases: - Decreases intensity - Increasing stability and exclusivity - Increases formal organisation Group size: Simmel Dyade - Relation between 2 people - Intense interaction 34  - Inherently unstable Triade - Group with 3 members - Less insatiable: isolation and less flexibility - Small groups: personally, bigger and more convenient with task Dyad→ fragile, no supra-personal level Triad→ first suggestions of social structure, the supra-personal possibility of coalitions, combinations Quadrad→ first real emergence of social structure Small and large groups Small group - Total involvement of the individual - Personal valuation - Intense, frequent interaction - Highly personal, emotional, subjective Large group - Greater social distance - Reduced intimacy - Greater freedom - Increase in delegation, formality, formal offices - Increase in inequality - Segmental involvement - Greater resilience to internal conflict - Power alien and/or distant Growth social relations 35 Social networks (web of group affiliations) Simmel distinguishes two types of social network 1. Organic social network - People are naturally member→ family - Primary groups (affection, loyalty, long term) - Groups cover many of someone’s personal life - Simple 2. Rational social network - People are chosen - Member of multiple groups - Secondary groups - Individuality - Complex The metropolis and mental life Example of a complex group: city dwellers Two possible consequences of membership of a rational social network: 1. Role conflicts: the more groups you are part of, the greater the chance of role conflicts (going out with friends, but tomorrow you have exam) 2. Blasè attitude: an attitude of boredom and lack of involvement→ in a city so many impressions/possible emotional relations, then a blasè attitude is a form of self-protection of your individuality/autonomy Subjective and objective culture Simmel focuses on the relationship between individual and culture (society) → dialectical relationship (mutual influence) Individual or subjective culture→the creativity and intelligence of the individual person→ agency Objective culture→all the things that we as people produce together, such as religion, art, literature, rituals. It comes to separate from the individual→ structure Objective culture Three variables of objective culture: 1. Culture may vary in size The amount of cultural material can be increased or decreased 2. Culture can vary in diversity of its components 3. Culture can vary in its complexity 36 Tragedy of culture In an ideal world there is a direct relationship between the individual experience and his/her cultural environment, but the objective culture is overshadowing the subjective culture, if: - Societies become more modern, society offers the individual more options than he can experience - Individuals are at risk of not being able to keep up with it or process it psychologically. Individual and objective culture - The individual is overgrown in modern society by the objective culture - Simmel thus shares the pessimism of Weber What increases objective culture? 1. Urbanisation ( → form countryside to the city) People’s contacts increase dramatically From primary group to secondary group 2. The (task) division of labor - Industrialisation - task specialization→ people lose overview (compare marx’s idea of alienation) 3. The use of money in the market economy Effects of money on the individual 1. Increase individual freedom (everything is for sale) 2. Loss of intrinsic value of things (everything is replaceable) 3. Money discourages intimate relationships with other people - Everything is for sale (e.g. friendship, love, sex) - Time is money 4. Money undermines morality and raises anomie - Money is amoral, it is a means of exchange that can be used for good or bad things Money helps us accomplish our goals, but it also removes us from objects and from other people. Effects of money on society 1. Allows for the possibility of exchange relationships at greater distance and longer in time 2. Money ensures greater continuity between groups, more cultural homogeneity - All value systems are denominated in money 3. Money increases the level of trust in society - Acceptance of money as a mean of exchange= trust 4. Money increases the centrality of the state - The state guarantees money 37 Simmel on conflicts - Conflict not the fundamental phenomenon - Conflict is normal part of everyday life - Positive significance of conflict Functions of conflicts - A stabilizing force because tensions can be discharged - The emergence of certain rules to which the conflicting parties adhere (e.g. rules of war) - Increasing togetherness within each of the parties - Allow society with competitors or socially less acceptable persons - Especially integrative effect - Conflict is means to achieve goal Group binding function of conflicts - Conflict ensures attribution and preservation of identity - Conflict is a way to obtain unity within a group or relationship - Conflict leads to reestablishment of unity and balance in a group - Conflicts with ' outgroups ' promotes internal coherence - A large group will be flexible towards deviant individuals, because they have a small influence on the whole (apparent tolerance) - A small group will be able to take action against dissenters within the group, because the core is easier to influence. Symbolic interactionism I - The philosophy of pragmatism - Psychological behaviourism - Theories of Simmel - Theories of Max Weber: the key point os that social action is meaningful. The behaviour of people is not objectively given, but you need to understand the meanings that people give to their behaviour. Symbolic interactionism II View on people: people are not passive puppets - Against the strict behaviourism - Against macro approaches in which people are ruled society View on society - Both individual and society are dynamic - From the actions of people, society is created and society is primarily the place where that alignment takes place. Explanation mode: - Humans are no longer dependent on their instinct, they have intellect. 38  - Mental abilities: people can symbolically construct their actions. Living together, this is an essential point. Charles Horton Cooley Looking glass self, three phases 1. We imagine how others appear to us 2. We imagine how others judge our appearance 3. We develop a kind of feeling of pride or humiliation following what we expect; how others judge us. Primary group, these are intimate groups that play a key role in connecting the actor with her larger society George Herbert Mead I Mind, that is the basic ability to: - Use symbols - Repeat social actions via symbols - Take the palace of other Mead II Self, this is a process consisting of four dimensions: 1. The ability to react as others react. 2. The ability to react as the generalised other reacts. 3. The ability to participate in one’s own conversation with another. 4. The ability to be aware of what another is saying and use this to predict what will happen next. Mead III - development of the ‘self’ Development of ‘self’ is a process of obtaining social experience: the socialisation process: - “Playstage”: children learn the roles of another - “Gamestage”: children learn a more generalising view of the situation and develop themselves 4 sociological paradigmata 1. Conflict 2. Structural-functionalism 3. Symbolic interactionism 4. Rational choice (rational choice theory) Perspective 1: conflict approach Social inequalities are typical for society; a society offers certain groups more advantages than other groups; the social relations are the 39 result of a constant battle between parties, sometimes more openly sometimes covered Key concepts: social inequality, stratification, power and struggle Marx, Engels, and C. Wright Mills Tensions and conflicts result in change Intervene in social reality Critical conflict approach - Less objectivistic science - Less attention to shared norms and values and dependencies that create cohesion - Macro level Perspective 2: structural functionalism Society exists of dependent parts that exist relatively stable because they are based on a shared consensus about what is morally acceptable; every part has a function for the functioning of the society as a whole. - Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons and Merton - Key concepts: social structure, social function and institutions - Merton: manifest, latent function and dysfunction Criticism structural functionalism - Society is not ordered and stable - Less attention for conflict, change and development - Confirms the status quo - Macro level Perspective 3: symbolic interactionism Society is a constant process of social interactions in specific situations and is based on symbolic communication, how individuals perceive reality changed constantly Key concepts: social interaction in specific situations/conditions and meaning giving individuals. Criticism on symbolic interactionism - Because of the focus on the micro level there is less attention for the influences of bigger structures (culture, class, ethnicity). Perspective 4: rational choice theory Assumes that society is held together by individuals who are acting based on their self-interest; individual choices result in (irrational9 collective effects. Key concepts: self-interest, social markets and irrational effects Criticism rational choice theory - Too model-based, too simplistic and too far away of reality - People do not act rational in all situations - Give a little, take a little. But how is that the case with altruism? 40 41