Islamic History and Empires PDF

After Muhammad's death, his successors were known as caliphs, who served as secular and spiritual leaders of the Islamic community. As the Arab or Islamic Empire grew, caliphs began to adopt the lifestyle of kings or emperors, wearing luxurious clothes and jewels to signify their power...

After Muhammad's death, his successors were known as caliphs, who served as secular and spiritual leaders of the Islamic community. As the Arab or Islamic Empire grew, caliphs began to adopt the lifestyle of kings or emperors, wearing luxurious clothes and jewels to signify their power. Muhammad did not name a successor and left no sons, creating uncertainty about who would lead the Islamic community. Abu Bakr, a wealthy merchant and Muhammad’s father-in-law, was chosen as the leader after Muhammad’s death. In 632, Abu Bakr was named the first caliph, or successor, to Muhammad. Under Abu Bakr's leadership, the Islamic movement grew by suppressing uprisings, leading to the expansion of Muslim territory Muhammad's successors expanded their territory under the concept of jihad, or "struggle in the way of God”. The Arabs, unified under Abu Bakr, defeated the Byzantine army at Yarmuk in 636. They moved forward into Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and the Persian Empire by 650. Arab rule was generally tolerant; local officials were often allowed to govern, people were not forced to convert to Islam, they were required only to be loyal and pay taxes. After Abu Bakr's death, the caliphs faced leadership struggles with no clear successors. In 656, Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law early converted to Islam, became caliph but was assassinated after five years of rule. The caliphs governed their expanding empire from Madinah and they faced significant internal conflict over succession. Islamic Dynasties The Umayyads In 661, Mu'awiyah, governor of Syria and a rival of Ali, became caliph. He established the Umayyad dynasty and moved the capital from Madinah to Damascus. The Umayyads expanded their empire, conquering North Africa. They occupied most of Spain by 725 but were halted in Europe after their defeat at the Battle of Tours in 732. The Abbasid  Abbasid dynasty was established in 750 by Abu al-'Abbas, overthrowing the Umayyad dynasty. Baghdad became the new capital in 762. Cultural changes under the Abbasids included breaking down distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims. During the Abbasid rule the islamic culture experienced a golden age because of the emphasis in art. Shia Muslims accept only the descendants of Ali as the true rulers of Islam. Shias believe in a line of divinely appointed Imams, starting with Ali. They are considered infallible and spiritual leaders with a deep connection to God. Sunni Muslims did not all agree with Umayyad rule but accepted the Umayyads as rulers, or caliphs. Sunnis regard imams primarily as prayer leaders and scholars but not as divinely chosen or infallible. This division of Islam culture remains until the present day Kush Africa’s first civilizations were Egypt, Kush, and Axum. Started around 250 B.C. and declined in 150 A. D. Was located in the territory of Nubia. The Kushites had significant trade with Egypt, they exchanged goods like ivory, ebony, and leopard skins. The economy of Kush started with farming but later evolved into a major trading empire with abundant iron ore resources. Produced iron weapons and tools. This helped them to increase their trade with the Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. Foreign trade was controlled by state authorities. Liked to accumulate luxury goods. Their religion was polytheistic. Axum Located in present-day Ethiopia.  Started around 100 A. D. and declined in 1400 A. D. Axum's prosperity happened because of its strategic location along the Red Sea, facilitating trade between India and the Mediterranean. Exported ivory, frankincense, myrrh, and slaves. Imported textiles, metal goods, wine, and olive oil. Axum competed with Kush for control of the ivory trade, and in the 4th century A.D., King Ezana of Axum invaded and conquered Kush. Axum's civilization adopted Christianity in 330 A.D., and it became the state religion.