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90 M I D D L E A G E S 5 0 0 – 14 5 0 c e THE MIDDLE AGES The Roman Empire’s collapse by the 5th century was followed by a millennium...

90 M I D D L E A G E S 5 0 0 – 14 5 0 c e THE MIDDLE AGES The Roman Empire’s collapse by the 5th century was followed by a millennium in which Europe became an economic and political backwater, eclipsed by a technologically advanced China and by a powerful Islamic empire. By the 6th century, large empires that had central Asia. Its rulers—the Umayyad and, later, the dominated the classical world fell to attacks by neighboring Abbasid caliphs—presided over a prosperous and culturally △ Golden mask peoples. In western Europe, the invaders had begun to build vibrant realm, but the difficulties of ruling such a vast This “Mask of the Winged Eyes” from their own states, which retained elements of Roman law and area proved impossible to overcome. By the 10th century, the Sicán culture, at its height in coastal administration but with the infusion of a Christian culture. it had begun to break apart into competing emirates and northern Peru around 900–1100, demonstrates pre-Inca mastery A form of government known as vassalage developed, in rival caliphates. Into this fragmented sphere arrived the of gold working. which nobles held lands from their sovereigns in exchange first European military expedition outside the continent for military service, while the lower orders held theirs in for centuries. return for their labor, a system known as feudalism. None of the Germanic Europe in the Middle Ages successors to Rome succeeded in uniting The Crusades were campaigns to gain its former territories. The empire of the control of the holy city of Jerusalem from Carolingian ruler Charlemagne (r. 768– the Muslims. The Crusaders succeeded in 814) came closest, but it fell apart after his establishing Christian-controlled states death. Islamic armies from North Africa in Palestine between 1096 and 1291, overwhelmed Visigothic Spain in 711. but fell to a series of resurgent Islamic In Central America, the Maya city- powers, including the Mamluks in Egypt states had collapsed by 900. In the same and the Seljuk Turks. region, the Aztec Empire emerged in the The Papacy, which had inspired the 14th century, paralleled in South America crusaders, remained a potent political with the rapid growth of the Inca state in as well as spiritual force in Europe, the mid-15th century. In India, Hun and engaged in a long struggle for invaders had destroyed the Gupta Empire recognition of its primacy over secular by 606. Stability was only partially restored rulers. This led it into a conflict with in the early 13th century by a sultanate the Holy Roman Emperors—the based in Delhi. German-based rivals to their claim (see pp.116–119). Islam and the Crusades △ Moorish marvel Europe had been buffeted by further Islam first appeared in Arabia in the early The ornate Court of the Lions, built c. 1370 invasions: by the Vikings, who preyed by the Nasrid Sultan Muhammad V at the 7th century and spread rapidly, creating a Alhambra palace in Granada, is typical of on northwestern Europe’s coastlines for vast empire that extended from Spain to the sophistication of late Islamic Spain. two centuries from around 800; by the 533–535 Byzantine emperor 618 The Tang 622 The Hegira—the flight 750 The Abbasids Justinian launches a war Dynasty reunifies of the Prophet Muhammad start a new caliphate TURBULENT TIMES to reconquer North Africa China after four and his followers from Mecca to in Baghdad The early Middle Ages—from the and Italy from Germanic kings centuries of disunity Medina—starts the Islamic era 6th to the 10th centuries—was a time of turbulence, as the collapse RUSSIA AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE of the major civilizations of the INDIA AND EAST ASIA classical world was followed by the emergence of new powers, THE ISLAMIC WORLD such as the Franks in western WESTERN EUROPE Europe, the Islamic empire in the Middle East, and the Tang THE AMERICAS Dynasty in China. The 13th and 14th centuries saw renewed 500 600 700 800 instability, as the Mongols created a 711 The Visigothic kingdom vast Eurasian empire and a plague of Spain is overthrown by 800 The Frankish pandemic killed an estimated 606 India’s Gupta a Muslim army invading ruler Charlemagne is 25 million people in Europe. Empire finally collapses from North Africa crowned emperor  TH E M I DDLE AG ES 91 ◁ The dance of death The 15th-century frieze Danse Macabre by German artist Bernt Notke shows the heightened European preoccupation with mortality at the time of the Black Death, when death seemed to strike the rich and poor indiscriminately. Magyars, who established themselves on the Hungarian Italian merchants pioneered methods of banking, and the ▽ Mongols defeated This 19th-century engraving by plain around 900; and by the Mongols, able horseback maritime empires of Venice and Genoa spread across Japanese artist Kuniyoshi Utagawa archers, who descended on eastern Europe in the 1240s. the eastern Mediterranean. By 1450, Europe’s ambitions shows the Japanese monk Nichiren and horizons were beginning to expand again. summoning storms that destroyed Mongol fleets in 1274 and 1281. Rise of the Mongols The Mongols also conquered China, which had been united by the Sui Dynasty in 589 and then prospered under the Tang Dynasty from 618 and the Song Dynasty from 960. At the eastern end of the Silk Road, which transmitted wealth and new ideas between east Asia and the Middle East, China pioneered the use of gunpowder, printing, and the marine compass but never succeeded in taming the Mongols, who also attacked Southeast Asia, destroying the kingdom of Pagan in modern Myanmar and threatening the Cambodian state of Angkor. Their armies tried to invade Japan, too, but were twice driven back by storms. Japan continued to be ruled by the shoguns—dynasties of military strongmen backed by clans of samurai warriors whose military ethos dominated the state. European revival Despite a global pandemic of plague and Mongol intrusion on its eastern fringe, Europe survived and prospered. The plague, or Black Death, killed more than one-third of the continent’s population. However, it also improved the lot of the peasantry, whose labor was now a scarcer commodity, “And believing it to be the end of the world, no one wept for thus undermining the roots of feudalism. New ideas now began to emerge in Europe. In Italy, a the dead, for all expected to die.” revived interest in classical art and ideas gave birth to the C H R O N I C L E R A G N O L O D I T U R A O N T H E B L A C K D E AT H I N I TA LY, 13 4 8 rich cultural movement of the Renaissance (see pp.160–161). 862 The people of 988 Prince 1099 Armies of 1204 Constantinople 1258 Mongol 1279 Kublai Khan 1348 The Black 1453 Constantinople Novgorod invite the Vladimir of Kiev the First Crusade is captured by the armies sack completes the Death devastates is taken by the Swedish Viking Rurik converts to capture Jerusalem Fourth Crusade Baghdad Mongol conquest most of Europe Ottoman Turkish to rule them Christianity of China Sultan Mehmed II 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 869 Last dated inscription 1000 City of Tiwanaku, 1076 Pope Gregory VII 1206 The 1337 The 1429 The Aztecs establish the 1438 Pachacuti begins made at the Maya city-state which ruled over a excommunicates German Emperor Delhi sultanate Hundred Years’ War Triple Alliance with other states a series of conquests of Tikal, which disappears large empire in South Henry IV as part of a power struggle is established between England in the Valley of Mexico, which that establishes the shortly thereafter America, is abandoned known as the Investiture Controversy in India and France begins forms the basis of their empire Inca Empire 92 M I D D L E A G E S 5 0 0 – 14 5 0 c e 1 JUSTINIAN’S RECONQUESTS 527–565 In 533, under Justinian, the Byzantine Empire launched an invasion of North Africa and conquered it from the THE BYZANTINE Vandals. In 535, Justinian sent an army to fight the Ostrogoths in Italy, seeking the reconquest of the old imperial capital, Rome. The war lasted 18 years, and Byzantine victory eventually came at a huge financial EMPIRE cost. Rome, however, was relinquished to the Lombards two centuries later. BRITAIN Justinian’s reconquests Byzantine capital In 330, Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome Byzantine victory to the former Greek colony of Byzantium, which later became Constantinople. In 395, the Empire split in two, and in 476 the western Se ine half collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire, however, endured for 507–711Toledo is the Visigothic capital until the Loire another 1,000 years, helped by the might of Constantinople. Arab conquest of the region Vouille Bay of Biscay F r a n k s N C After the last western Roman emperor rising power of Islam, and much of the EA TI was deposed in 476, the Eastern Roman Balkans fell to invaders led by the Slavs. Ga Empire (called Byzantine by historians) Although the Byzantine Empire rallied OC AN Eb P y r o n ne ro continued as the sole entity of Roman under the Macedonian Dynasty (867– re sovereignty—though predominantly 1056), regaining lost territory, its split n L 2 e Toledo 73 es A T s Greek-speaking (unlike its fallen Latin- from the Church of Rome (1054) and the th Ta g u s speaking western counterpart). resulting threat it posed to the Pope’s Barcelona ig o is By 554, Emperor Justinian I authority led the Venetians to divert the V Córdoba Baleares (r. 527–565) had reconquered large parts army of the Fourth Crusade to the 79 of the western Mediterranean coast, sacking of the Byzantine capital instead, 8 1 71 including Rome itself, which the empire permanently weakening the empire. Strait of Cartagena held for two more centuries. To mark his Nevertheless. throughout much of Gibraltar Ceuta achievements, Justinian ordered the its 1,000-year existence, the Byzantine construction of the church of Hagia Empire buffered Europe from newly Sophia, which would later become the emerging forces to the east, and its MAU RETANIA NUMIDIA center of the Eastern Orthodox Church thriving capital exerted great influence while also inspiring a new wave of upon the fields of art, literature, science, 6 THE FOURTH CRUSADE 1202–1204 When the Fourth Crusade hit difficulties raising architecture, in particular across the and philosophy—both as an intellectual money, the Venetians offered their financial backing, Islamic world. However, in the 7th hub and as custodian of Ancient Greek but as a condition, they diverted the Crusaders into a century, Byzantium lost North Africa texts, thereby helping to shape modern conquest of Constantinople. The Crusaders looted, and its Middle Eastern territories to the European civilization. terrorized, and vandalized the city. In the aftermath, the empire was divided between Venetians and Crusader lords, while a few Greek areas remained independent, notably the Byzantine state of Nicaea. The sacking reduced the empire to a city-state. A TLANTIC KINGDOM OF O CEAN THE FRANKS Fourth crusade Key siege ASIA Paris attack route K I N GDOM Bordeaux KINGDOM KINGDOM OF THE HS OF T H E OF THE S U EV ES BURGUNDIANS OSTROGOTHS OT Toulouse Ravenna G VI RISE AND FALL OF BYZANTIUM SI KEY Toledo TH E Black Sea KINGDOM OF Rome Under Justinian, Byzantium reclaimed Lands lost 565–1025 Adrianopolis Roman provinces for the empire. SASS Constantinople Lands lost 1025–1360 From the mid-6th century, however, E ASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE defensive warfare became endemic, ANIAN Empire in 1360 Carthage Athens Corinth as the empire fought invasions from different groups at different times. EMPIRE RESILIENT EMPIRE KINGDOM OF THE VANDALS Mediterranean Sea By 500, the Western Roman TIMELINE Empire had fragmented into 1 various Germanic kingdoms. AF 2 The Eastern half proved more resilient RI 3 CA 4 to any similar invasions, with a virtually 5 impenetrable walled capital in Constantinople. A series 6 of able emperors helped the empire to recover, and its 500 700 900 1100 1300 thriving economy allowed it to support a substantial army.  TH E BY Z ANTIN E EM PIRE 93 2 DEFENDING AGAINST PERSIA 610–641 3 NOMADIC RAIDS 600–1200 4 ISLAMIC INVASION 629–1180 Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) came to In the 10th century, seminomadic peoples, such as the Under the leadership of the first caliphs, Arab Muslim power in the midst of an invasion of the empire by the Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars, invaded the Balkans—the armies invaded both Sassanid Persia and the Byzantine Sassanid Persians. The Sassanids had already seized region between the Greek Peloponnese and the Empire. At the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, the Byzantine control of Egypt and the Levant and attempted Danube River. In 1014, Byzantine emperor Basil II army suffered a huge loss. In the aftermath, first Syria a siege of Constantinople. In 627, Heraclius launched (r. 976–1025) destroyed the Bulgarian Kingdom and and Palestine and then Egypt were conquered by Arab a counterattack into the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, annexed the territory—a feat for which he earned the armies and fell under the influence of Islam. Under the and surrounded the city, eventually forcing a peace nickname “Bulgar-Slayer.” However, revolts against rule of the Macedonian Dynasty (867–1056), the deal that subdued the Sassanid threat. Byzantine rule in 1185 led to a loss of the Balkans and Byzantine Empire managed to recapture territories undermined the Byzantine Empire. lost to Muslim conquests in the 7th century. Persian invasions Heraclius’s counterinvasion Persian capital Nomadic raids Byzantine victory Muslim invasions Byzantine defeat Rhin A S I A e Dnie per 1202 Army of the Fourth 1014 Basil II dians Crusade pillages the port defeats Bulgars and n un Do u rg of Zara annexes Bulgarian B Kingdom 0 69 Alps Danube C n e Sla o Aquileia vs , as Rh Milan and Bulgar CRIMEA p Venice Ava s , r s ia Cherson Ravenna n Ad 1091 Byzantine Empire Black 56 Zara Se ri MOESIA loses most of Anatolia 8 at DACIA 5 Sea to Seljuk Turk invasion a ic 91 91 IT Se 9 2 4 Serdica Adrianople Trebizond A 9 Ragusa Constantinople LY Corsica a AG O N I A MACEDONIA THR ACE PA P H L 62 Rome 7 Barium Kleidion 67 PONTUS 626 675–681 Durazzo 5 Naples CAPPADOCIA Thessalonica Nicaea Sardinia Brundisium (Salonika) 1071 552–553 A n a to lia 918 Aegean Caesarea Manzikert Battle of Mons Sea LYDIA Akroinon Edessa P E S e l j u k s 4,717 Lactarius R S 64 Ephesus Iconium Dara 613 I A 1 – 7 6 1 Sicily PA M Tarsus CILICIA N Carthage 902 67 Athens PH YLI A Antioch Callinicum E 878 T ig M 904 Syracuse Eup SYRIA hra P tes I R r is ZEUGI CARTHAGO 533 Battle of Ad Decimum. E 6 614 654 Cyprus Ctesiphon –64 Byzantine victory in Carthage Crete leads to the collapse of the 639 615 Vandal Kingdom Damascus Mediterranean Se 627 Byzantine troops 82 8 a Caesarea march into the Persian 64 3– 69 Tripoli capital to counter the 26 V a 7–698 Jerusalem Sassanid invasion nd al 61 9 63 AICA 63 38 s REN Alexandria 636 Battle CY 7– 4 of Yarmuk 6 64 64 2,6 46 3 A F R I A R A B IA C A EGYPT Re 5 BYZANTINE–SELJUK WARS 1048–1071 d Se The Seljuk Turks, a group of warriors Nil on horseback from central Asia, e a invaded the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century. During the Battle of Manzikert (1071), the Byzantine Emperor Romanus Diogenes was taken prisoner. The Seljuk threat to Constantinople forced Byzantium to send a distress call to Rome, which triggered the First Crusade (see pp.106–107). ▷ Emperor Justinian This mosaic depicting Byzantine emperor Justinian is on the wall Byzantine defeat of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. It was completed in 547 Seljuk Turks invasion Seljuk cavalry armed for battle after Justinian had reconquered the old imperial capital. 94 M I D D L E A G E S 5 0 0 – 14 5 0 c e THE GROWTH OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD 610–750 Muslim armies occupied much of the Middle East and North Africa within a decade of their emergence from Arabia, and over the next THE ASCENT century advanced to northern Spain and the edge of central Asia. The map shows the date each city was captured or surrendered. KEY OF ISLAM Muslim raid, with date Sassanian Empire c. 610 New city founded by Muslims Muslim lands by 632 Muslim fortress Muslim lands by 656 Beginning with a series of revelations received by Byzantine Empire c. 610 Muslim lands by 756 the prophet Muhammad around 610 ce, the new faith TIMELINE of Islam rapidly gained followers in Arabia. Within a 1 century, armies fighting under its banner had conquered 2 3 4 a vast swathe of territory from Persia to Spain. 600 650 700 750 E Rhi P O R ne Muhammad was born around 570 into an influential merchant family in Mecca. From the age of 40, he experienced a series of E U divine revelations, and from around 613, he began to preach that there was only one God, Allah. His condemnation of polytheism and 732 The Frankish FRANKISH AVAR KINGDOM idol worship was unpopular, and he was forced to flee to the town of army under Charles EMPIRE Yathrib (Medina). His message of monotheism began to attract Martel halts the re Arab advance Loi ps followers, and he soon built up an army that captured Mecca. Poitiers Al Under Muhammad’s successors, known as caliphs, Muslim forces ANTIC OCEA LOMBARD defeated the Byzantine and Persian Empires, which had been ATL N KINGDOM 732 R hône ar severely weakened by a war between them that lasted from 602 to KINGDOM OF G on ASTURIAS ne 628. The Byzantine Empire lost Syria, Palestine (including the holy 721 Rome 720 city of Jerusalem), and Egypt to the Muslims, but the Sassanian Oviedo Toulouse 7 Py 21 Narbonne Corsica Eb r ene Persian Empire was conquered in its entirety, bringing the fledgling 718 ro es Covadonga Islamic state new provinces from Iraq to the borders of India. I b e r i a n 72 0 Dou r o Sardinia The Umayyad caliphs, a dynasty that ruled the Islamic empire P e n i n s u l a 714 a n ds Saragossa Is l from 661 from their capital at Damascus, established a complex KINGDOM ric ea 72 OF THE 712 Toledo 0 l Ba administration that made use of the experience of Greek-speaking VISIGOTHS 0 Sicily 698 Muslim armies 72 officials in the former Byzantine provinces. They encouraged the 711 Lisbon Mérida capture Carthage Carthage Tunis integration into the empire of peoples beyond Arabia; and as ever 711 Cordova Sousse 720 more people converted to the faith, Islamic armies pushed westward, Kairouan Rio Barbate conquering the remainder of North Africa and much of Spain by 711. 711 Berber general Strait of Tahert Monastir Mahdia Gibraltar Briefly, in the mid-8th century, all this territory was united under the Tariq leads troops s b 647 Tripoli i n into Spain and Fez e authority of a single ruler, guided by a faith whose tenets had by now conquers the r Rabat h t a found written form in a sacred book, the Qur’an. Visigothic kingdom M a g n TRIPOLI o u s M t l a A THE DIVISION OF ISLAM 634 –661 ce SUNNI AND SHIA A F R I C The question of who should hold political and A religious authority within Islam after the death ▽ The Dome of the Rock of Muhammad proved incredibly divisive. Many This Islamic shrine—a landmark in felt the succession should pass through the the city of Jerusalem—was built family of Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, and under the fifth Umayyad caliph, these formed the Shia (the party of Ali), while Abd al-Malik. Completed in 691, parts (including the dome) have S a h a r a others, who rejected this view and adhered been rebuilt since. to the Umayyads in Damascus and their successors, became the Sunni. This division in Islam has persisted until the present day. Calligraphic succession In this 18th-century Turkish artwork, the red writing indicates Allah; the central name in blue is Ali, first Imam of the Shia; the green writing gives the name of the prophet Muhammad.  THE ASCENT OF ISLAM 95 1 MUHAMMAD, THE HEGIRA, AND THE 751 The Abbasid Caliphate Talas River CONQUEST OF ARABIA 610–632 (succeeding the Umayyads) defeats Many of Muhammad’s clan, the Quraysh, saw his the Tang Chinese at the Talas River, consolidating their hold on A S I A 751 rejection of the traditional Arab worship of many Transoxiana for the next 400 years gods as a threat to their authority. In 622, he had FERGHANA to flee to Medina—an exodus known as the Hegira, ar ya Tang protectorate Sy r D which marks the traditional beginning of the Muslim A era. A military as well as a religious leader, Muhammad N h Samarkand IA made alliances and raised an army that took Mecca Kus Aral D in 630. By the time of his death in 632 ce, he had G Sea SO conquered most of Arabia. TRANSOXIANA H indu 642 Yazdegerd III is A m u Da r ya Bukhara defeated at Balkh Kabul Battle or capture Nehavend, leading to the rapid Muslim conquest of the ZABULISTAN Multan rest of Persia K ara K um D on KHAZAR C a Tus T h ar s p Kandahar EMPIRE D e ser t i a Lashkari Bazar n KHURASAN S Gurgan Herat Ind u s r s casu i e pe e SISTAN Cau Nishapur a Damghan Dn Tiflis Qumis TA N I r a n i a n Ardabil TABARIS E Nayin P l a t e a u IR a Suleyman P S e Qazvin Kerman c k Trebizond ARMENIA Hamadan EM l a N Sinope 647 SIA 643 Yazd B PER be Nehavend ns Theodosiopolis nu Isfahan IAN ai Da nt Mosul KERMAN ou Malatya Nineveh S A S S A NZ PERSIA Niriz M Ti a g ro s n M ou Hormuz a l k Constantinople 71 Ankara Mes FARS gr 7 opo ntain E is Ba Samarra KHUZIS s ia tam TAN tol IR Warash Euphrat ia Shiraz Ana P es Baghdad Susa Ana Suhar Muscat E MTarsus Adana 680 Al Hira Siraf Raqqa Kerbela 656 Basra Kufa Aegean E Pers lf I N 636 Homs SYRIA BA ian Gu OMAN Sea T Qadisiya H Z A N 654 Cyprus 649 634 Damascus RA IN B Y Rhodes 636 At Yarmuk, 636 Muslim Hasa S e a 6 54 Yarmuk Khalid ibn al-Walid victory against 67 destroys the main the Persians 0, 6 661 Ali is assassinated while at 74, 7 P A L E S T I N E Byzantine field leads to the 17 prayer, leading to a schism between Crete 638 Jerusalem army, leaving the conquest of Yamama Sunni and Shia Muslims; Muawiya 6 54 n rest of Syria and Mesopotamia a i a n becomes the first Umayyad caliph, a n e 634 Ajnadain Palestine open to NEJD e r r ruling from Damascus M e d i t a Alexandria 640 Muslim conquest S e Heliopolis A r a b P e n i n s u l a a b Tabuk i a n 643 Barca Al Fustat 641 Memphis Raysut (Cairo) HE Mabiyyat JAZ A r BARCA Medina 622 Muhammad and his principal followers 642 ‘Amr ibn al-As are forced to flee to the oasis town captures Alexandria, EGYPT Nil Badr of Yathrib (later known as Medina) the last Byzantine e Ajdabiya stronghold in Egypt Socotra Mecca 630 Muhammad conquers Mecca Aswan Jedda Ta’if Shibam 624 The Muslim Najran army defeats Meccan forces, beginning the 610 Muhammad R Athr YEMEN process by which receives revelations e d Muhammad conquers from the archangel S e Sana the whole of Arabia Gabriel in a cave in the a hills outside Mecca Zabid Aden 2 UMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF SYRIA 3 THE CONQUEST OF PERSIA AND KHURASAN 4 LATE UMAYYAD CONQUESTS 670–750 AND EGYPT 634–644 636–656 The Muslims’ expansion west of Egypt was slow until Under the second caliph, Umar (who had been a The Sassanian rulers of Persia had almost captured they built a base at Kairouan (in modern Tunisia) in 670. companion of Muhammad), Muslim armies achieved the Byzantine capital of Constantinople by 626, but From this stronghold, they captured the remainder of astonishing successes against the Byzantine army, the effort exhausted their resources. After a Muslim the Byzantine Empire in north Africa, taking its capital which had been weakened by its long war with Persia. army defeated them in Mesopotamia in 636, the Carthage in 698. In 711, an Arab–Berber army crossed First Damascus, the chief city of Syria, fell to the Persians lost their western provinces. The Persian into the Christian Visigothic kingdom of Spain and, Muslims, and then they seized Jerusalem. They went shah Yazdegerd III became a fugitive, and his domains within 20 years, had conquered almost all of it. In on to subdue the Byzantine province of Egypt, where were absorbed into the growing Islamic empire. central Asia, Muslim armies won Transoxiana. In 750, religious divisions among the Christian population Within 5 years, much of Khurasan (Khorasan), the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid undermined opposition to the Muslims. in central Asia, had been added to the empire, too. Dynasty, who took control of the caliphate. Battle or capture Battle or capture Battle or capture 96 M I D D L E A G E S 5 0 0 – 14 5 0 c e THE ISLAMIC IMPRINT c. 800–1200 KEY The huge Abbasid Caliphate became divided between Islamic world a number of dynasties (shown below with their dates): c. 1000 THE RULE OF some faded away; others, such as the Seljuks (see p.120), Further expansion later filled the power vacuum in the Islamic world. of Islam THE CALIPHS TIMELINE 1 2 3 4 5 The Umayyads, who had ruled over the Islamic world 6 from 661, fell in 749–750. Their empire was inherited 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 by a new dynasty, the Abbasids, but its integrity was soon challenged as local rulers broke away, leaving the FRANKISH Iberian Abbasids with control over little more than Baghdad. Peninsula EMPIRE yr s lp P 756 The Umayyad prince en A UMAYYADS ee Abd al-Rahman escapes to Spain 756–1031 s The Umayyad Caliphate (see pp.94–95) collapsed after a brief civil where he founds a new emirate,