The Beginning of the Middle Ages PDF

1. THE LEGACY OF AL ANDALUS THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES  1. How did the Middle Ages begin? The unity of Mare Nostrum… For centuries, the Roman Empire spread around the Mediterranean, which the Romans called Mare Nostrum (our sea). These lands were united under the...

1. THE LEGACY OF AL ANDALUS THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES  1. How did the Middle Ages begin? The unity of Mare Nostrum… For centuries, the Roman Empire spread around the Mediterranean, which the Romans called Mare Nostrum (our sea). These lands were united under the same political unit (the Empire) and shared the same language (Latin), laws and ways of life. A single currency facilitated trade, and the network of cities and roads united the vast empire, which split in half (East and West) in 395 AD. Following Rome's collapse in the late 5th century, the territories surrounding the Mediterranean split into different civilisations and ways of life.... disappeared with the Germanicinvasions... In the early 5th century, the Huns, a barbarian people from Asia, led by Attila, invaded and devastated the Western Roman Empire. They were finally defeated in Gaul and withdrew. To escape the Huns, the Germanic peoples (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, Alemanni, Suebi, Vandals, Alans, etc.) migrated into the Western Empire. These peoples had no writing, laws or state structure, but they did have military leaders. They gradually occupied the Western Empire. Finally, Odoacer, a Germanic warrior who commanded imperial troops, deposed the last Roman emperor (Romulus Augustulus) and was proclaimed king....and the Middle Ages began Historians consider the fall of Rome in 476 to be the beginning of the Middle Ages. This period lasted more than one thousand years. To some historians, it ended with the conquest of Constantinople (1453) by a Turkish-Muslim army and, to others, with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas (1492). THE FRAGMENTATION OF THE MARE NOSTRUM In the Middle Ages, three large civilisations formed around the Mediterranean: The Germanic kingdoms In the 5th century, the Roman Empire was occupied by Germanic peoples and divided into independent kingdoms. The main ones were the Carolingian Empire and the Visigothic Kingdom. Most people fled the cities and came to depend on large agricultural landowners. This paved the way for feudalism. The Byzantine Empire While the Germanic tribes destroyed the Western Empire, the more populated Eastern Roman Empire withstood invasion and maintained its wealth. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, set out to reconquer part of the Western Empire and keep the Roman legacy alive. Over time it was Hellenised: Greek became the official language, and it adopted Eastern political and cultural practices that differed from Roman culture. The Islamic Empire In the 7th century, a new religion appeared on the Arabian Peninsula: Islam. It was monotheistic like Christianity and Judaism. Its followers, called Muslims, were called to spread the new faith. Military conquest spread Islam throughout the Middle East and Africa, forming a large empire that controlled the Mediterranean's entire southern coast, most of the Iberian Peninsula (8th century) and eventually the Byzantine Empire. ROMAN EMPIRE = Political union (The empire) + language (latin) + laws + way of life + single currency (facilitated trade) 395 AD it splits in half (East and West) In early 5th century Huns (Pastoral nomads and skilled warriors, led by Attila) invaded the Western Roman Empire Germanic tribes (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, Suebi….) escaped and migrated - No writing laws and a military leader - Occupied the Western Roman Empire - Deposed last Roman emperor 476 Fall of Rome and beginning of Middle Ages It ended with the conquest of Constantinople (1453) by a Turkish-Muslim army and, to others, with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas (1492). THREE LARGE CIVILISATIONS - The Germanic Kingdoms - Main ones Carolingian empire and the Visigothic Kingdom - Most people fled the cities to the countryside - Feudalism began - The Byzantine Empire - The Easter Roman Empire stood - They conquered part of the Western Roman Empire - Greek, main language (Hellenisation) - The Islamic Empire - 7th century new religion in Arabian Peninsula, Islam. Followers called Muslims - Monotheistic (Islam, Christianity and Judaism) - Large Empire that controlled the Mediterranean  2 Was the Byzantine Empire a continuation of the Roman Empire? The Eastern Empire survived… Between the 5th and 15th centuries, Rome's legacy survived in the East with the Byzantine Empire. Its capital city was Constantinople, founded in 330 by the Emperor Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium... had a golden age… In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian (518-565) conquered parts of the former Western Empire. He upheld Roman traditions and held all political, military and religious power. He also compiled and adapted Roman laws in two books called the Codex Justinianeus. By establishing its capital in Constantinople, the Empire facilitated trade between East and West. Trade (spices, pearls, amber, wheat, furs, etc.) led to periods of economic prosperity, thanks also to agriculture and the production of luxury items (silk, wool, tapestries, metalwork, enamels, leather, etc.).... but slowly declined In the 7th century, the Empire began to lose territory. In the following centuries, a new dynasty restored its prosperity, but the Empire began to decline again in the 11th century. The Turks or Ottomans, a Muslim people from Asia Minor, conquered much of the Empire. In 1453, they conquered the capital, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. Constantinople was situated between Asia and Europe, on the Bosphorus Strait, between the Marmara and Black Seas. Built on an easily defensible peninsula with a natural port, the Golden Horn, it was a strategic military and commercial enclave with over half a million inhabitants, several forums and a palace area, making it the new Rome. THE ORIENTALISATION OF BYZANTIUM The Byzantine emperors had absolute power as heads of the State, army and Church. After Justinian, Byzantium developed its own political and religious identity, different from Rome. Over time, the court adopted Greek culture: Latin was replaced by Greek, and the emperor was called basileus ('king' in Greek). The religious unity between the Byzantines and Romans ended. The emperor appointed the patriarch of Constantinople, the Eastern Church's highest religious authority. He crowned new emperors but was under the emperor's authority and not the Roman pope's. Ceremonies and rules were also different. In the east, priests could marry, people worshipped idols, mass was in Greek and no instruments were used in the liturgy, only human voices. In 1054, the East-West Schism occurred and the Christian church separated into Roman Catholics in the west and the Orthodox church in the east (the Greek word 'ortodoxia' means 'correct belief'). Between the 5th and 15th centuries, Rome's legacy survived in the East with the Byzantine Empire 6th century, Emperor Justinian held all political, military and religious power (absolute power) Roman laws = Codex Justinianeus. Capital in Constantinople (was situated between Asia and Europe), the Empire facilitated trade between East and West. In the 7th century, the Empire began to lose territory The Turks or Ottomans. In 1453, they conquered the capital, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. Adopted Greek culture Patriarch of Constantinople, the Eastern Church's highest religious authority In 1054, the East-West Schism (Catholic vs Orthodox) This extended to the Bulgarians, Serbs and Russians.  3 How did the Germanic kingdoms transform Europe? Europe split into independent kingdoms… In the late 5th century, the Germanic peoples who had settled in the Roman Empire began forming independent, rival kingdoms. The Visigoths moved into southern Gaul and Hispania; the Suebi, into present-day Galicia. The Franks settled in northern Gaul, while the Burgundians occupied the east. The Alemanni settled along the Rhine; the Anglo-Saxons, in Britain; and the Ostrogoths, in present-day Italy. The Vandals crossed Hispania and moved into North Africa. Due to their contact with the Romans, the Germanic peoples adopted many of their traditions. Latin remained the official language, they adopted many Roman laws and Christianity became the official religion. THE GERMANIC KINGDOMS IN THE 5TH CENTURY...and society was transformed Although many Roman citizens kept their land and property, the Germanic peoples became the new elite and ruled over the rest of the population. The power of the soldiers and landowners increased, while that of the old urban groups (merchants, artisans, civil servants, etc.) declined. Culture was a luxury in a world where people struggled to survive. Since most people were not educated, only clerics and monks were able to read and write. They built monasteries and devoted themselves to prayer and culture. Monasteries became havens for learning and knowledge, and Germanic monarchs appointed monks, bishops and abbots as councillors. A GERMANIC VILLAGE Peasants, under the protection of a large landowner, formed villages surrounded by palisades. The villages were self-sufficient and produced almost everything the inhabitants needed. The peasants subsisted by working the fields and rearing domestic animals. They also used resources from the forests and rivers. There were also artisans who made basic products. In the late 5th century, the Germanic peoples began forming independent, rival kingdoms. The Visigoths moved into southern Gaul and Hispania, Suebi, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, Vandals… Latin remained the official language, they adopted many Roman laws and Christianity became the official religion. Germanic peoples became the new elite and ruled over the rest Crisis in cities: climate of insecurity, trade was no prosperous and farming became the dominant activity. Misery and fear caused the population to seek refuge in the countryside The villages were self-sufficient  4 A Germanic peoples in Hispania: the Visigoths THE FORMATION OF THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM The Huns pushed the Suebi, Vandals and Alans into Hispania in 409. Soon after, the Visigoths, a Germanic peoples and an ally of Rome, moved into the Peninsula, drove the Vandals and Alans into North Africa and cornered the Suebi in Galicia. In return, they were allowed to settle in southern Gaul and Hispania, where they formed the Kingdom of Toulouse. In 507, the Franks defeated the Visigoths in theBattle of Vouillé and pushed them south of the Pyrenees. The Visigoths spread throughout Hispania and created a kingdom with its capital in Toledo in 554. Together with large Hispano-Roman landowners, they constituted the aristocratic and privileged social group. HISPANIA IN 6TH CENTURY The Visigothic Kingdom was based on three pillars: A strong hereditary monarchy. To rule, the monarchs relied on institutions. Control of the Peninsula, thanks to the expulsion of the Suebi (585) and Byzantines (624), and control of the north of the Peninsula. The union of the Hispano-Romans and Visigoths under the same religion (King Reccared converted to Catholicism in 587) and law (the Liber Iudiciorum in 654 under King Recceswinth. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE VISIGOTHIC CHURCH In the Visigothic Kingdom, the Church's influence increased in the 6th century, after King Reccared renounced Arianism, which differed from mainstream Christianity, was baptised and established Catholicism as the official religion. In the monasteries, the monks revived ancient classical culture from a Christian perspective, mainly through the work of scribes. They were knowledgeable in Latin, the language of treaties and laws. Saint Isidore of Seville and Saint Braulio of Zaragoza were clerics and intellectuals from Visigothic Hispania. THE VISIGOTHS IN THE TERRITORY OF MADRID The territory of Madrid was a very depopulated area at that time. The Visigoths continued the trend of Hispano-Roman families, who left cities to settle in rural areas. There, they lived from traditional activities such as agriculture and livestock. Today’s Community of Madrid had three large areas of Visigoth occupation: Elevated areas in the upper basin of the Manzanares and Jarama rivers, for example, the sites of Remedios, Navalvillar and Navalahija (Colmenar Viejo), La Cabilda (Hoyo de Manzanares) and Cerro de la Cabeza (La Cabrera). Meadow areas by the upper courses of these rivers, such as Carabanchel, Villaverde and the towns of La Indiana and Tinto Juan de la Cruz (Pinto). Some towns from Roman times such as Complutum (Alcalá de Henares), which grew in importance as an episcopal seat, and Talamanca del Jarama. The Huns pushed the Suebi, Vandals and Alans into Hispania in 409 The Visigoths drove the Vandals and Alans into North Africa and cornered the Suebi in Galicia. In return, they were allowed to settle in southern Gaul and Hispania, where they formed the Kingdom of Toulouse. In 507, the Franks defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Vouillé. The Visigoths created a kingdom with its capital in Toledo in 554 The Visigothic Kingdom was based on three pillars: - A strong hereditary monarchy - Control of the Peninsula - Same Religion and law. King Reccared converted to Catholicism (renounced Arianism) in 587 and the Liber Iudiciorum in 654 under King Recceswinth Under the Visigoths, Toledo became the religious and political centre. Councils decide on religious matters, but also civil issues related to governance of the kingdom. Many of his counsellors were bishops. The territory of Madrid was a very depopulated area at that time  5 Did Charlemagne succeed in creating a large Christian empire? The Frankish Kingdom… The Franks ruled a vast kingdom. They occupied Gaul, and also parts of Italy and central Europe. In the early 8th century, a Frankish nobleman, Charles Martel, stopped the Muslims from invading France in the Battle of Poitiers (732). His son, Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founded the Carolingian dynasty. THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE...became the Carolingian Empire… His son and successor, Charlemagne conquered much of Western Europe, prevented the advance of Islam and secured borders. He converted all subjects to Christianity and united political and religious power, forcing the bishops to swear allegiance to him. Charlemagne wanted to restore the former Western Roman Empire. He was crowned emperor of the Western territories by Pope Leo III in 800. He established his court in Aachen and started a cultural renaissance.... with a complex administration… To control his empire, collect taxes and enforce the law, Charlemagne devised a new means of government: To defend the borders, he created marches, border areas with numerous troops led by a military commander, the marquess. To govern more effectively, he divided the empire into counties governed by counts. To ensure his orders were followed, he created the missi dominici, inspectors who supervised the counts, marquesses and other civil servants. This system of government involved a chain of personal relationships based on loyalty and protection. Charlemagne protected the nobles and gave them lands and the right to govern them. In exchange, they were his vassals and promised him allegiance, respect and military aid. Charlemagne's chain of personal relationships was the basis of feudal Europe.... which split after Charlemagne's death Louis the Pious (814-840), Charlemagne's son, divided the empire among his three sons: Lothair, Louis and Charles. Lothair, the oldest, also became emperor and tried to impose his authority. However, Louis and Charles rebelled, defeated him and forced him to sign the Treaty of Verdun (843). This turned each territory into an independent kingdom. The Frankish Kingdoms (Gaul, Italy and Central Europe) Charles Martel, stopped the Muslims from invading France in the Battle of Poitiers (732). Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founded the Carolingian dynasty. His son, Charlemagne conquered Western Europe, prevented the advance of Islam and secured borders. He converted all subjects to Christianity and united political and religious power. He was crowned emperor of the Western territories by Pope Leo III in 800. He started a cultural renaissance. To control his empire, collect taxes and enforce the law, Charlemagne devised a new means of government: To defend the borders, he created marches To govern more effectively, he divided the empire into counties governed by counts. To ensure his orders were followed, he created the missi dominici, inspectors who supervised Louis the Pious (814-840), Charlemagne's son, divided the empire among his three sons: Lothair, Louis and Charles. The Treaty of Verdun (843). This turned each territory into an independent kingdom  6 What was art like in the Christian East and West? Due to the Church's importance in both the Byzantine Empire and Western Germanic kingdoms, most art was religious. On the Iberian Peninsula, Visigothic art combined Roman traditions with Germanic elements. BYZANTINE ART Large temples Byzantine churches were large, with rich materials (marble) and ornate decoration. Most had a Greek-cross (arms of equal length) or basilica plan, with semi-circular arches, supporting columns and flat or domed roofs. The central area was often particularly prominent, covered with a large dome on top of pendentives. Spectacular examples include the Church of Saint Sophia, an Orthodox basilica built under Justinian, along with the churches in Ravenna, Italy. Mosaics The most common form of decoration were mosaics, which covered the church walls and apses. They were made from small brightly-coloured tiles (tesserae), and depicted either religious scenes or the imperial family. Icons Icons are religious images. They often depict the Virgin Mary holding the Christ child, Christ in Majesty or biblical scenes. They were painted in bright colours on wood panels, with a golden background. VISIGOTHIC ART Small rural churches In architecture, they built small rural churches with thick stone walls and few windows. They often used stone blocks, marble, columns and relief carvings from Roman structures. The churches had a basilica plan, isolated columns and Corinthian capitals. A characteristic element is the horseshoe arches around the entrance and inside. Examples of churches built mainly in the 7th century include San Juan de Baños (Palencia), San Pedro de la Nave (Zamora), Santa Comba de Bande (Ourense) and Santa María de Quintanilla de las Viñas (Burgos). Metalwork Metalwork, highly influenced by Germanic techniques and tastes, was important. Artisans used techniques like casting and engraving, gilding, welding and inlays of gems such as garnet and agate to make items from precious metals (gold and silver) or bronze and iron. Votive crown from the Treasure of Guarrazar (Guadamur, Toledo). Most art was religious. On the Iberian Peninsula, Visigothic art combined Roman traditions with Germanic elements. Byzantine art: Large churches, rich materials, Greek-cross or basilica plans, dome roofs. Church of Saint Sophia Mosaics: covered the church walls and apses. Brightly-coloured tiles Icons are religious images: bright colours on wood panels, with a golden background. Visigothic art: small rural churches with thick stone walls and few windows. They had a basilica plan. A characteristic element is the horseshoe arches. San Juan de Baños (Palencia), San Pedro de la Nave (Zamora), Metalwork, highly influenced by Germanic techniques and tastes, was important.  7 How did Islam emerge and expand? In the 7th century, the Arabian Peninsula, situated between the Persian and Byzantine empires, was a major trade hub between East and West. Arabians were mostly traders or nomadic herders, lived in tribes and were polytheistic. The biggest city was Mecca. Muslim warriors, ready for battle, 12th-century painting. Muhammad founded a new religion… Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 to a merchant family. Tradition holds that, in 610, the Archangel Gabriel told him that Allah ("God" in Arabic) had chosen him to preach a new monotheistic religion: Islam. His message was rejected by the merchants, and he fled from Mecca to Medina in 622. This event, the Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. After converting the inhabitants of Medina, he preached among the tribes of Arabia, formed an army of followers and conquered Mecca. By the time Muhammad died (632), most Arabians were Muslim, and Arabia was politically unified. The highest authority was the caliph, who was religious leader, chief justice and military general.  THE EXPANSION OF THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE... which spread and formed a large empire The Muslim army continued to spread their faith through military conquest (men who died fighting the infidels were promised paradise) and they quickly conquered a big empire that stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. The Islamic Empire dominated trade between East and West by controlling the major trade routes: the Middle Eastern crossroads and the Indian and Mediterranean sea routes. The Islamic Empire had several stages: The first four caliphs (632-661) were chosen from among Muhammad's close relatives. The Umayyad dynasty, from Syria, seized power (661-750). They established the capital in Damascus and expanded into the Iberian Peninsula. The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) defeated the Umayyads and moved the capital to Baghdad. Their rule coincided with the economic and cultural golden age of Islam. In the 13th century, the Islamic Empire was overthrown by the Turks (Ottoman Empire), who conquered Constantinople (1453). ISLAM, A RELIGION AND CODE OF CONDUCT Islam recognises only one God, Allah, and considers Muhammad the last of several prophets who include figures from other monotheistic religions, such as Abraham, Moses and Jesus. The revelations of Allah were recorded in the Quran, the holy book of Islam. It contains 114 surahs (chapters), which establish the precepts of Islam. Followers must adhere to the Quran's rules, from aspects of private life to obligations for the ummah (Islamic community). The Quran and the Sunnah, the text on the prophet's practices, form the Sharia, or Islamic religious law. All good Muslims must follow the five pillars of Islam (core practices) and expand the faith. They are also prohibited from drinking alcohol, eating pork and gambling. There are worship leaders (imams) and interpreters of religious texts (ulama). Judges (qadis), chosen from among the most devout believers, impart justice in accordance with the Quran. A MOSQUE The mosque is a place of worship where imams lead prayer. It is also a meeting point and place for studying the Quranic texts. In the 7th century, the Arabian Peninsula was a major trade hub. They lived in tribes and were polytheistic. The biggest city was Mecca. Muhammad in 610, the Archangel Gabriel told him that Allah had chosen him to preach a new religion: Islam. He fled from Mecca to Medina in 622. This event is the Hijrah. Formed an army of followers. Muhammad died (632), most Arabians were Muslim. Arabic became the official language of the Empire. The Muslim army continued to spread their faith through military conquest and they quickly conquered a big empire controlling the major trade routes. Stages: The first four caliphs (632-661) The Umayyad dynasty, from Syria, seized power (661-750). They established the capital in Damascus and expanded into the Iberian Peninsula. The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) defeated the Umayyads and moved the capital to Baghdad. Their rule coincided with the economic and cultural golden age of Islam. In the 13th century, the Islamic Empire was overthrown by the Turks (Ottoman Empire), who conquered Constantinople (1453). Islam recognises only one God, Allah. The revelations of Allah were recorded in the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah (Chapters), the text on the prophet's practices, form the Sharia, or Islamic religious law. There are worship leaders (imams) The mosque is a place of worship where imams lead prayer. It is also a meeting point FIVE PILLARS Profess the faith. "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet." Pray facing Mecca five times a day Fast during the day during Ramadan Give alms to the poor to thank Allah for blessings. If possible, go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once.  8 Al-Andalus: How did it form and develop? Al-Andalus was the Muslim State created on the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century. Its borders and government changed over the centuries. This was because of disputes between different groups, and the military campaigns of the Christian counties and kingdoms. A caliph and his court. Arabic miniature,13th century. THE CONQUEST OF THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM (711-718) In 711, a small Muslim army led by Tarik, a Berber commander, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete. The Visigothic Kingdom was suffering economic crisis and internal disputes so other Muslims armies encountered almost no resistance. By 722, they controlled almost all of the Peninsula, except a narrow mountainous strip in the north, where the Hispano- Visigoths took refuge. THE CONQUEST OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA FROM A DEPENDENT TO AN INDEPENDENT EMIRATE After conquering Hispania, the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus established the emirate of al-Andalus, with its capital in Córdoba and ruled by an emir. In the mid-8th century, the Abbasid dynasty from Baghdad took control of the Islamic Empire. The last member of the Umayyad clan, Abd al-Rahman, fled to al-Andalus. He proclaimed himself an independent emir under the name Abd al Rahman I and founded the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929). It had its own administrative and legal structure, but it remained under Baghdad's religious authority. THE INDEPENDENT EMIRATE OF CÓRDOBA THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE UMAYYAD CALIPHATE (929-1031) To strengthen his power and impose his authority over other rival al-Andalus clans, Emir Abd al-Rahman III named himself caliph and proclaimed independence from Baghdad's religious authority. For al-Andalus, the Caliphate of Córdoba was an economic, cultural and scientific golden age, and Córdoba became Europe's most populated city. The caliphs suppressed internal rebellions and Christian advances thanks to the military expeditions (azeifas) of Al- Mansur, who forced the Christian kingdoms to pay taxes (parias) to keep the peace. THE CALIPHATE OF CÓRDOBA IN THE 10TH CENTURY THE DIVISION INTO TAIFA KINGDOMS (1031-1238) In the early 11th century, the high cost of the army and rivalry between the nobles and military to escape the caliph's control sent the Caliphate into a crisis. In 1031, the Muslim aristocracy divided al-Andalus into over 25 independent kingdoms, or taifas, each with a major city. This fragmentation led the Christian kingdoms in the north to attack. To prevent Christian conquest, two North African Muslim peoples, the Almoravids (1086) and Almohads (1147), arrived on the Peninsula and took control of most taifas. With the Muslim defeat in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), the Christians conquered virtually all taifa kingdoms. MAIN TAIFA KINGDOMS IN THE 11TH CENTURY THE NASRID KINGDOM OF GRANADA (1238-1492) The last Muslim enclave was the Kingdom of Granada, founded in 1238 by the Nasrid dynasty. For over two centuries, the Nasrid Kingdom was prosperous thanks to trade and agriculture. Granada became an important cultural and commercial hub. However, the Nasrid kings had to pay Castile heavy taxes. In the late 15th century, the Catholic Kings decided to conquer the kingdom. Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, surrendered Granada in 1492, ending almost 800 years of Islamic rule on the Iberian Peninsula. THE NASRID KINGDOM OF GRANADA IN THE 15TH CENTURY Al-Andalus was the Muslim State created on the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century- In 711 defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete. Visigothic crisis. By 722, they controlled almost all of the Peninsula. After conquering Hispania, the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus established the emirate of al- Andalus, with its capital in Córdoba and ruled by an emir. In the mid-8th century, the Abbasid dynasty from Baghdad took control of the Islamic Empire. Abd al Rahman I and founded the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929). It had its own administrative and legal structure, but it remained under Baghdad's religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III named himself caliph and proclaimed independence from Baghdad's religious authority. The Caliphate of Córdoba was an economic, cultural and scientific golden age, and Córdoba became Europe's most populated city. The caliphs suppressed internal rebellions and Christian advances thanks to the military expeditions of Al-Mansur, who forced the Christian kingdoms to pay taxes (parias) to keep the peace. In the early 11th century, the high cost of the army and rivalry sent the Caliphate into a crisis. In 1031, the Muslim aristocracy divided al-Andalus into over 25 independent kingdoms, or taifas To prevent Christian conquest, two North African Muslim peoples, the Almoravids (1086) and Almohads (1147), arrived on the Peninsula and took control of most taifas. With the Muslim defeat in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) The last Muslim enclave was the Kingdom of Granada, founded in 1238 by the Nasrid dynasty (Prosperous kingdom). In the late 15th century, the Catholic Kings decided to conquer the kingdom. Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, surrendered Granada in 1492.  9 Why was it so prosperous? There were crops… When the Muslims arrived on the Iberian Peninsula, agriculture was scarce and limited almost exclusively to cereals and grapes. They revolutionised farming with new crops and irrigation systems. This increased yields, which led to population growth and more trade. New hydro-powered irrigation water extraction and transportation techniques, such as the water wheel, sakia and irrigation ditches, made it possible to grow new intensive crops. The main crops were cereals, vegetables, pulses, rice, fruit trees and herbs. They also grew plants for commercial use, such as mulberry trees for feeding silkworms, textiles (cotton and linen), medicines and trees for making paper. The sakia lifted water from wells to the crops; ditches transported river water to vegetable patches; and aljibes were used to store water. AN ARAB SAKIA AN AL-ANDALUS ALQUERÍA Irrigated lands were divided into small plots, and the alquería was the main rural community. NEW CROPS INTRODUCED BY THE ARABS Cereals: rice. Vegetables: aubergines, asparagus, spinach, chard, squash, cucumbers, green beans, garlic, onion, carrots, turnips, etc. Fruit: watermelons, melons, bitter oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, bananas, quince, apricots, etc. Spices: saffron. Other: sugar cane and cotton.... as well as artisanal work and trade The main economic activity in al-Andalus was trade in cities, which took place in bazaars. Here, people bought and sold agricultural products from rural areas and crafts and products manufactured in cities by members of guilds, who grouped together in different neighbourhoods depending on their activity (leather, pottery, ironwork, textiles, etc.). Extensive international trade took place in al-Andalus' main cities, such as Córdoba, Seville and Toledo, which attracted merchants from all over the world. Metals and timber arrived from Europe; slaves, gold and ivory from Africa; and spices and luxury products from the East. al-Andalus also exported agricultural and craft products. The al-Andalus currency, the gold dinar and silver dirham, were stable and highly valued. They were used in both European Christian kingdoms and Islamic territories. THE ECONOMY OF AL-ANDALUS Muslims revolutionised farming with new crops and irrigation systems New hydro-powered irrigation water extraction and transportation techniques, such as the water wheel, sakia and irrigation ditches The main crops were cereals, vegetables, pulses, rice, fruit trees and herbs Irrigated lands were divided into small plots, and the alquería was the main rural community. New crops introduced: Rice, spinach, cucumber, bananas, apricots or saffron The main economic activity in al-Andalus was trade in cities, which took place in bazaars. Extensive international trade took place in al-Andalus' main cities, such as Córdoba, Seville and Toledo. Metals and timber arrived from Europe; slaves, gold and ivory from Africa; the gold dinar and silver dirham,  10 What was life like in an al-Andalus city? A highly diverse society… Al-Andalus was home to people of numerous ethnicities and religions. Most of society was Muslim and divided into different social categories: the aristocracy (landowners and large traders), middle class (traders, artisans, etc.) and commoners. Based on origin or provenance, people were either: Arabs: those in power, they owned the best land. Berbers: North Africans who came with the Arabs during the conquest; soldiers, they owned less fertile lands. Muladí: Hispano-Visigoths who converted to Islam; most of the population. Non-Muslims had to pay special taxes, lived in separate neighbourhoods and had limited rights. The two main religious minorities were: Mozarabs: Christian farmers or artisans. Jews: artisans or traders who lived in separate Jewish quarters. While Muslims, Christians and Jews lived peacefully, conflicts with minorities occasionally occurred in al-Andalus. Persecution and intolerance did exist, particularly under the Almoravids and Almohads.... who lived mainly in cities Cities were the centre of social, political and economic life in al-Andalus. Most had large populations. Córdoba had over 300000 inhabitants, while Seville, Toledo, Granada, Badajoz and Zaragoza were also highly populated. Most were surrounded by walls. People entered through gates which were protected and closed at night. Inside the walls, the streets were narrow and disorganised. The city centre (medina) is where most political, cultural and economic activities took place, with artisan workshops and the market (bazaar). AN AL-ANDALUS CITY The city centre was called the medina, which had its own walls and housed the main mosque and alcázar or governmental residence. It also had drinking water fountains and public baths. All commercial activities took place in the bazaar (market). There were alhóndigas (inns or public houses where wheat was bought and sold) nearby for caravans from outside the city. The alcaicería was an enclosed space inside the bazaar where the most valuable merchandise was sold. The neighbourhoods outside the walls were called arrabals. ARAB BATHS The hammams (baths) were public, civic and religious buildings. People went there to wash, cut their hair, get a massage and talk to others. For Muslims, water had religious significance as a means of purification. Most of society was Muslim and divided into different social categories: the aristocracy, middle class and commoners. Based on origin: Arabs Berbers: North Africans soldiers Muladí: Hispano-Visigoths who converted to Islam; most of the population. Non-Muslims had to pay special taxes, lived in separate neighbourhoods and had limited rights. The two main religious minorities were: Mozarabs: Christian Jews: Jewish quarters. Persecution and intolerance did exist, particularly under the Almoravids and Almohads. Cities were the centre of social, political and economic life in al-Andalus. Most were surrounded by walls. The city centre (medina).The hammams (baths) were public, civic and religious buildings  11 What was Madrid like at the time of al-Andalus? Today’s Community of Madrid was once a sparsely populated area of the Meseta Sur that was occupied by Muslims in the 8th century. The territory of Madrid was part of the Central March… At the end of the 9th century, before the advance of the Christian kingdoms towards the Duero line, the emirs of Córdoba built a defensive belt to prevent the Christian advance. It consisted of castles, watchtowers and towers between the Sierra de Guadarrama and Toledo. The lands north of the Tagus River were in the Central March. It was a sparsely populated border territory in the highest areas of the region. It included the fortified enclosures of Madrid, Talamanca del Jarama and Alcalá de Henares (Qal'at Abd el-Salam), which were the beginnings of today’s urban centres. When the Caliphate of Córdoba broke up into independent kingdoms (1031), a lot of the Madrid territories became part of the taifa kingdom of Toledo. Islamic Madrid was the target of several attacks by the Christian kings during their conquest. King Ramiro II of León tried to occupy the fortification in 932, and Fernando I in 1046. THE CENTRAL MARCH AROUND THE 10TH CENTURY...where new routes were created During the period of Islamic occupation, new routes were created to strengthen control of the territory: In the time of the Emirate, the road to the port of Somosierra was built to stop Christian attacks from the Duero valley. During the Caliphate, contact with the northwest through the route that goes up the Guadarrama River through the port of Tablada (today Alto de los Leones) became important. In the 11th century, disputes between the taifas of Toledo and Zaragoza led to the establishment of routes southwest and southeast of Madrid. ISLAMIC MAYRIT, FORTRESS OR CITY? The emir of Córdoba Muhammad I (852-886) built a fortress (almudayna) on a promontory next to the Manzanares River. This was the beginning of Islamic Madrid, known by the Arabic term Mayrit, which means 'land rich in water'. It was a strategic area point between Toledo and Complutum, the two most important cities in that region. Over time it was surrounded by walls, a citadel and a mosque. Preserved remains of the old fortress include a part of the wall and some of its towers, a guardhouse that watched over one of the gates, and wells and silos used as rubbish bins and ovens. Archaeological studies suggest that Mayrit was a military enclave with no urban centre. It did not become a true city until later. A small medina, open to the outside through the gates of Alvega (Cuesta de La Vega), Xagra (La Sagra) and Santa María, would complete this original settlement. MAYRIT IN THE 10TH CENTURY It was occupied by Muslims in the 8th century. When the Caliphate of Córdoba broke up into independent kingdoms (1031), a lot of the Madrid territories became part of the taifa kingdom of Toledo. During the period of Islamic occupation, new routes were created to strengthen control of the territory: Madrid, known by the Arabic term Mayrit, which means 'land rich in water'. It was a strategic area point between Toledo and Complutum, the two most important cities in that region.  12 Why do we still admire al-Andalus art? ARCHITECTURE Al-Andalus is particularly renowned for its architecture. Although mosques are the most representative structure, they also built civic buildings, such as kasbahs, palaces, bazaars, public baths and schools (madrasas). Characteristics of Islamic architecture include simple materials (brick and wood) and austere exterior walls, which contrast with the rich and diverse interior decoration: marble, tiles, plaster and wood. The buildings were topped with ornately decorated vaults and domes. To support them, they used pillars, columns and numerous arches. Many buildings, particularly the palaces, had beautiful gardens in which the plants and water created a peaceful, relaxing atmosphere, integrating architecture and nature. Al-Andalus architecture drew from Islamic art, yet adopted its own elements, such as the horseshoe arch framed by an alfiz, the multifoil arch and interlaced arches. Generalife Gardens at the Alhambra in Granada.  The mihrab from the Mosque of Córdoba. 1.Emirate and caliphate period (756-1031) The period of the most significant technological contributions and richest architectural designs and decoration. Examples include the Mosque and Medina Azahara Palace in Córdoba.  Aljafería Palace, Zaragoza. 2.Taifa and Almohad period (1031-1212) The architecture was more austere and prioritised structure over decoration. Examples include the kasbah in Malaga, the Aljafería Palace in Zaragoza and the Giralda and Tower of Gold in Seville.  Court of the Lions, Alhambra. 3.Nasrid Period (1238-1492) Rich decoration inside the buildings, which hid the poor quality of the building materials. Examples include the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada. DECORATIVE ARTS The Quran's prohibition of human images limited the development of sculpture and painting, in which abstract and geometric motifs were most popular. Artists cultivated different forms of decorative art, including metal, glass and ivory objects (tableware, jars, door knockers, etc.), marquetry and, most importantly, pottery and mosaics, with a wide array of motifs, shapes and colours.  TYPES OF DECORATION The walls were decorated with paintings, mosaics and stucco. In terms of decoration, geometric, plant and arabesque motifs were popular. Mosques are the most representative structure, they also built civic buildings. Simple materials (brick and wood) and austere exterior walls, which contrast with the rich and diverse interior decoration: marble, tiles, plaster and wood. Al-Andalus architecture drew from Islamic art, yet adopted its own elements, such as the horseshoe arch framed by an alfiz, the multifoil arch and interlaced arches. 1.Emirate and caliphate period (756-1031) Richest architectural designs and decoration. Mosque of Cordoba 2.Taifa and Almohad period (1031-1212) More austere and prioritised structure over decoration.Tower of Gold in Sevlle 3.Nasrid Period (1238-1492) Rich decoration inside the buildings, which hid the poor quality of the building materials. Alhambra  LEARNING TO LEARN Analyse a medieval map