Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1 - PDF

Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1\ -Know the characteristics of living organisms - Cellular composition - Metabolism - Growth - Excretion - Responsiveness - Movement - Reproduction -Know the levels of structural organization and body systems (figure 1.4 on page 9 is helpful) Chemi...

Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1\ -Know the characteristics of living organisms - Cellular composition - Metabolism - Growth - Excretion - Responsiveness - Movement - Reproduction -Know the levels of structural organization and body systems (figure 1.4 on page 9 is helpful) Chemical, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism - Integumentary System: Hair, Skin, Nails\ Skeletal System: Bones, Joints\ Muscular System: Skeletal Muscles\ Lymphatic System: Lymph organs, Lymphatic vessels\ Respiratory System: Lungs, pharynx, nasal cavity, others.\ Digestive System: Colon, other digestive organs/accessory organs\ Reproductive system: Reproductive organs, male and female\ Urinary System: Urinary bladder, Urethra, Ureters, Kidneys\ Cardiovascular System: Heart, Blood vessels\ Endocrine System: Glands, Hypothalamus, Pancreas\ Nervous System: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves A person\'s body with a pencil Description automatically generatedA diagram of a human body Description automatically generatedA diagram of a person\'s body Description automatically generatedA diagram of a person\'s body Description automatically generatedA diagram of a person\'s body Description automatically generated -Know the basics of the language of anatomy- This will follow you all semester so learn it now! Systemic anatomy -- approach used in textbook; examines human body primarily by looking at individual organ systems\ Regional anatomy -- divides body into regions of study such as head and neck Surface anatomy -- studies surface markings of body\ Gross anatomy -- examines structures that can be seen with unaided eye\ Microscopic anatomy -- studies structures that can only be seen with aid of a microscope; include Histology (study of tissues) and Cytology (study of cells) -Be able to describe anatomical position and why it is important Feet slightly apart, standing straight, Head and toes pointed forward, Arms hanging at side -Be able to use the major anatomical terms Superior: Toward the top\ Inferior: Towards the bottom\ Example:\ The nose is superior to the mouth.\ The nose is inferior to the forehead.\ Proximal: Closer to the point of origin\ Distal: Farther away from the point of origin\ Example:\ The knee is proximal to the ankle.\ The foot is distal to the hip. Right/Left: obvious\... but not necessarily YOUR right and left\...\ Medial: Closer to the midline of the body\ Lateral: Farther away from the midline of the body Anterior/Ventral: Towards the front\ Posterior/Dorsal: Towards the back\ Example:\ The palms are on the anterior side of the\ body.\ The mouth is anterior to the ear.\ The spinal cord is posterior to the esophagus.\ Superficial: Closer to the surface\ Deep: Farther below the surface\ Example:\ The skin is superficial to the muscle. -Know body planes/sections (which one is a horizontal plane?) We don't talk about the oblique plane much so you don't have to worry about that one Sagittal Plane: divides the body into left and right parts.\ Frontal Plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.\ Transverse Plane: divides the body into superior and inferior parts. -Know the anterior versus posterior body cavities, what are their subdivisions, what organs do they contain Ventral Body Cavity: divided by the diaphragm\ Thoracic Cavity: contains heart and lungs\ Abdominal Cavity: contains the digestive organs\ Pelvic Cavity: bladder, reproductive organs, rectum Dorsal Body Cavity:\ Cranial Cavity: houses the brain\ Vertebral Cavity: houses the spinal cord -What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity? The Diaphragm separates them both. -What major organs can be found within the four body quadrants? (just basics here) Liver, Spleen, Appendix, Sigmoid colon -What is a serous membrane A serous membrane is** a thin membrane that lines the internal body cavities and organs, such as the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity.** -What is the visceral versus parietal layers? - - -What are the three main serous membranes/body cavities **heart, lungs,** and** abdominal** cavity. -Know the basics of X-ray, CT, and MRI. This is best seen on page 21 "Medical Imaging" (just the basics here) **X-ray and CT require the use of ionizing radiation while MRI uses a magnetic field to detect body protons** -Be able to define homeostasis maintenance of internal environment -KNOW negative feedback loops Negative feedback loops -- oppose initial change in a regulated variable; reduce output\ ♣ When a change in status of a regulated variable is detected, a series of events is triggered to return variable to its normal value Each regulated variable has a set point or an established normal value\ ♣ Normal value for a regulated variable's set point is usually a range of values called the normal range\ When regulated variable is outside its normal range, information called a stimulus is detected by specialized cellular structure called receptor (sensor)\ ♣ Stimulus is sent to a control center, usually cells of nervous or endocrine system; determine that variable is outside of set point Control center then signals other cells or organs, called effectors; cause physiological responses that return variable to normal homeostatic range (Figure 1.13)\ ♣ Negative feedback loop ends or is closed once variable has returned to normal -KNOW positive feedback loops less common than negative feedback loops; effector activity increases and reinforces initial stimulus; shuts off when conditions return to the normal range -Form follows function. What does this mean? How can this relate to our cells, tissue, organs? Form of a structure is always such that it best suits its function States simply that form follows function; applies to each level of organization even down to chemical level -Define gradient, know our main types of gradients (3 main types) Temperature gradient -- when there is a temperature difference between two connected regions (Figure 1.16a)\ o Concentration gradient -- where there is a concentration difference between two connected regions (Figure 1.16b)\ o Pressure gradient -- when there is a pressure difference between two connected regions -Why might cell to cell communication be important cell to cell communication is required to coordinate body functions Cells in body must work in a coordinated fashion to\ ensure homeostasis of entire organism is maintained Lecture Study Guide Chapter 2\ -Define Chemistry and Matter Matter -- anything that has mass and occupies space; can exist in three states: solid, liquid, or gas\ Chemistry -- study of matter and its interactions -Know the three types of subatomic particles and their charge Protons (p+) -- found in central core of atom (atomic nucleus); positively charged\ ♣ Neutrons (n0) -- found in nucleus; no charge/neutral.\ ♣ Electrons (e-) -- found outside atomic nucleus; negatively charged -Know the basics of electron shells, how many electrons can the first shell hold?, second?, third? Electron shells -- regions surrounding atomic nucleus where electrons exist; each can hold a certain number of electrons:\ ♣ 1st shell (closest to nucleus) can hold 2 electrons\ ♣ 2nd shell can hold 8 electrons\ ♣ 3rd shell can hold 18 electrons but "satisfied" with 8 -What is the difference between an atom and an element Element -- substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical means\ Atom -- smallest unit of matter that retains original properties -Define mass number Mass number can tell you the most common number of neutrons in the nucleus -Define isotopes Isotope -- atom with same atomic number (same number of protons), but different mass number (different number of neutrons) -Know the different types of mixtures suspensions, colloids, and solutions\ \ -Define chemical bond, ionic bond, covalent bonds Chemical bonds are formed when valence electrons (in outermost valence shell) of atoms interact Ionic bond -- formed when electrons are transferred from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom; results in formation of ions: cations and anions Covalent bonds -- strongest bond; form when two or more nonmetals share electrons -Define compound Compound -- formed when two or more atoms from different elements combine by chemical bonding -What is a valence shell, valence electrons Valence electrons determine how an atom interacts with other atoms and whether it will form bonds with a specific atom Valence Shell The **outermost shell of any atom** -Define octet rule The octet rule** states that atoms prefer having eight electrons in their valence shell.** -What is a cation and anion, what are their charges? Cation -- positively charged ion; forms when metal loses one or more electrons\ ♣ Anion -- negatively charged ion; forms when nonmetal gains one or more electrons -Define hydrogen bond\ Hydrogen bonds -- weak attractions between partially positive end of one molecule and partially negative end of another molecule -What is chemical notation\ Chemical notation -- series of symbols and abbreviations used to demonstrate what occurs in a reaction; the chemical equation (basic form of chemical notation) has two parts:\ ♣ Reactants on left side of equation are starting ingredients; will undergo reaction\ ♣ Products on right side of equation are results of chemical reaction -What is a chemical reaction A chemical reaction has occurred every time a chemical bond is formed, broken, or rearranged, or when electrons are transferred between two or more atoms (or molecules) -Know the forms of energy in the human body (3 kinds mainly) Chemical energy -- found in bonds between atoms; drives nearly all chemical processes\ Electrical energy -- generated by movement of charged particles or ions\ Mechanical energy -- energy directly transferred from one object to another -Define endergonic versus exergonic reactions\ Endergonic reactions require input of energy from another source; products contain more energy than reactants because energy was invested so reaction could proceed\ Exergonic reactions release excess energy, so products have less energy than reactants energy -KNOW reaction rates and enzymes Concentration\ Temperature\ Reactant properties\ Presence or absence of a catalyst Enzymes ♣ Speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy\ ♣ Highly specific for individual substrates (substance that can\ bind to the enzyme's active site)\ ♣ Do not alter the reactants or products\ ♣ Not permanently altered in reactions catalyzed -What is activation energy For a reaction to occur atoms must collide with enough energy overcome the repulsion of their electrons\ This energy required for all chemical reactions is called the activation energy (Ea) -What are biological catalysts called? Enzymes -KNOW enzymes. How do they relate to energy, do they become permanently altered in reactions? What may be caused by enzyme deficiencies? Speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy\ ♣ Highly specific for individual substrates (substance that can\ bind to the enzyme's active site)\ ♣ Do not alter the reactants or products\ ♣ Not permanently altered in reactions catalyzed Induced-fit mechanism -- describes enzyme's\ interaction with its substrate(s)\ ♣ Binding of substrate causes a small shape to change that\ reduces energy of activation -What are the properties of water (basics) High heat capacity -- able to absorb heat without significantly changing temperature itself\ Carries heat with it when it evaporates (when changing from liquid to gas)\ Cushions and protects body structures because of relatively high density\ Acts as a lubricant between two adjacent surfaces (reduces friction) -Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic Water is only able to dissolve hydrophilic solutes (those with fully or partially charged ends); "like dissolves like", so water dissolves ionic and polar covalent solutes Solutes that do not have full or partially charged ends are hydrophobic; do not dissolve in water; includes uncharged nonpolar covalent molecules such as oils and fats -Know acids versus base. (related to pH) Acid -- hydrogen ion or proton donor; number of hydrogen ions increases in water when acid is added\ Base (alkali) -- hydrogen ion acceptor; number of hydrogen ions decreases in water when base is added -What are carbohydrates, monosaccharides and disaccharides, polysaccharides carbohydrates = sugars; composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Monosaccharides -- single sugar rings = monomers Disaccharides are formed by union of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharides joined to one another by dehydration synthesis reactions -What are lipids, fatty acids and triglycerides, different types of fatty acids Lipids -- group of nonpolar hydrophobic molecules composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen - Not all lipids are polymers (made of monomers) Fatty acids -- lipid monomers consisting of 4 to 20 carbon atoms; may have none, one, or more double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon chain Triglyceride -- three fatty acids linked by dehydration synthesis to a modified 3-carbon carbohydrate, glycerol; storage polymer for fatty acids (also called a neutral fat) Twenty different amino acids; can be linked by peptide\ bonds into polypeptides -Define phospholipid Complex lipids composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid "tails" and one phosphate "head" in place of third fatty acid -Define steroid Steroids -- nonpolar and share a four- ring hydrocarbon structure called the steroid nucleus -What is a protein, what are amino acids, know protein structure Proteins are polymers made of amino acid monomers Twenty different amino acids; can be linked by peptide bonds into polypeptides Fibrous proteins -- long rope-like strands; composed mostly of nonpolar amino acids; link things together and add strength and durability to structures\ Globular proteins -- spherical or globe-like; composed mostly of polar amino acids; function as enzymes, hormones, and other cell messengers\ \ -What are nucleotides and nucleic acids Nucleotides -- monomers that combine to form the polymer nucleic acids -What are nucleotides composed of\ Nucleotide structure:\ ♣ Nitrogenous base with a hydrocarbon ring structure\ ♣ Five-carbon pentose sugar, ribose or dexoyribose\ ♣ Phosphate group -What is ATP?? Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) = main source of chemical energy in body -What is the difference between DNA and RNA RNA -- single strand of nucleotides; can move between nucleus of cell and cytosol; critical to making proteins DNA, an extremely large molecule found in nuclei of cells; composed of two long chains that twist around each other to form a double helix Lecture Study Guide Chapter 3 -Know the basic processes of cells Cell metabolism\ Transport of substances\ Communication\ Cell reproduction -What is cytosol what is its function how is cytosol different from cytoplasm Defines intracellular space = cytoplasm from the extra cellular space Cytosol -- intracellular fluid; mostly water with dissolved solutes, inclusions or storage molecules, and proteins; site of many important chemical reactions -What are organelles Organelles -- variety of cellular machines with very specific functions; suspended in cytosol; serve to separate potentially damaging chemical reactions from surrounding cell structures (compartmentalization) -Know all of the cellular structures and their basic functions, table 3.2 is helpful for this Plasma membrane- surrounds each cell, isolating its internal structures and processes from external environment:\ Cytoplasm-Defines intracellular space\ Nucleus-Most cells contain a single roughly spherical organelle called the nucleus -Know the basic structure of the plasma membrane and which portions are\ hydrophilic/hydrophobic Molecules must have parts that repel water, to keep one side from crossing to the other\ ♣ Phospholipids are amphiphilic -- have both a hydrophilic polar head (phosphate) facing each fluid compartment and hydrophobic tails (fatty acids) that face one another forming a water-resistant barrier -How are carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids distributed in the plasma membrane Glycolipids and glycoproteins, carbohydrate bound to either lipid or protein respectively, serve to identify cell as part of body and for cell recognition -What is the phospholipid bilayer In order for plasma membrane to form an effective barrier, membrane molecules must have two key properties:\ ♣ Molecules must have parts that interact with water in both fluid compartments without falling apart\ ♣ Molecules must have parts that repel water, to keep one side from crossing to the other\ ♣ Phospholipids are amphiphilic -- have both a hydrophilic polar head (phosphate) facing each fluid compartment and hydrophobic tails (fatty acids) that face one another forming a water-resistant barrier -What is the fluid mosaic model The plasma membrane is dynamic fluid structure with multiple components, some with ability to move within bilayer as phospholipids move themselves -What is cholesterol Cholesterol -- lipid molecule, stabilizes plasma membrane's fluid structure during temperature changes -Integral versus peripheral proteins Integral/Transmembrane proteins -- span entire plasma membrane\ Peripheral proteins are found only on one side of plasma membrane -Basic function of the membrane proteins figure 3.5 is helpful for this. Integral/Transmembrane proteins -- span entire plasma membrane\ Peripheral proteins are found only on one side of plasma membrane -Define selectively permeable The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable, allowing certain molecules to cross while prohibiting others -What is active and passive transport ♣ Passively -- without the need for energy (ATP)\ ♣ Actively -- requires the need for energy (ATP) -What is diffusion, what force drives diffusion Diffusion - movement of solute molecules from high to low concentration; moving down or with its concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached. ATP -What is facilitated diffusion versus simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion involves charged or polar solutes such as ions and glucose; cross phospholipid bilayer with help of a membrane protein (carrier or channel) -What is osmosis, osmotic pressure. Osmosis -- the diffusion of water Osmotic pressure -- driving force exerted by solute molecules; causes water molecules to move until equilibrium (no net movement) is reached -Define hydrostatic pressure [Hydrostatic pressure is defined as "The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at any point of time due to the force of gravity"](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d012623f0637136bJmltdHM9MTcyNjA5OTIwMCZpZ3VpZD0zY2VlM2VlNS1mNGIzLTY3NWMtMDBmNS0yYTNlZjVlNDY2MGEmaW5zaWQ9NTc0NA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=3cee3ee5-f4b3-675c-00f5-2a3ef5e4660a&psq=Define+hydrostatic+pressure&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9ieWp1cy5jb20vcGh5c2ljcy9oeWRyb3N0YXRpYy1wcmVzc3VyZS8&ntb=1) -What happens to cells in an isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solution. How does this relate to dehydration (page 79) Normally ECF is isotonic to cytosol; both fluids have approximately same concentration of solute; no net movement of water across plasma membrane and no volume changes in either fluid compartment Hypertonic -- solute concentration is higher on that side of the membrane\ ♣ osmotic pressure gradient pulls water out of cell and cell shrinks or crenates\ Hypotonic -- solute concentration is lower ton that side of the membrane\ ♣ osmotic pressure gradient pulls water into cell causing the cell to swell and possibly rupture or lyse -Be able to describe and understand the events of primary active transport (figure 3.10) Primary active transport involves pump in plasma membrane that binds and transports solute against its concentration gradient using energy from hydrolysis of ATP\ Sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+) is most vital for maintenance of Na+ and K+ concentration\ gradient homeostasis -Be able to describe and understand the events of secondary active transport (figure 3.11) Secondary active transport uses ATP indirectly to fuel a transport pump\ ATP is used to create and maintain a concentration gradient of one substance\ Moving this substance across plasma membrane down its concentration gradient provides energy to move another substance against its concentration gradient -What is an electrical potential, membrane potential Electrical potential across plasma membrane is known as membrane potential -What is endocytosis and the two basic types of endocytosis, what happens during the basic types of endocytosis Endocytosis -- bringing substances into a cell Phagocytosis ("cell eating") -- process where cells ingest large particles\ Pinocytosis ("cell drinking") -- process where cells engulf fluid droplets from ECF -What is receptor-mediated endocytosis (this is a special type of pinocytosis) (figure 3.13b) Receptor-mediated endocytosis -- similar to pinocytosis; uses receptors to fill vesicles with a specific molecule -Table 3.1 may be helpful for you when you are studying plasma membrane transport A diagram of a cell Description automatically generated -What is exocytosis, what happens during exocytosis Exocytosis -- large molecules exit cell; known as secretion; vesicles fuse with plasma membrane, opening into ECF\ Vesicles & active transport -What is transcytosis Transcytosis is the** **transcellular transport of molecules via vesicles**.** -What makes up the cytoskeleton and what are their functions Cytoskeleton -- made of several types of protein filaments; dynamic structure able to change function based on needs of cell; plays a variety of critical roles:\ Gives the cell its characteristic shape and size by creating an internal framework\ Provides strength, structural integrity, and anchoring sites' support plasma and nuclear membranes as well as organelles\ Allows for cellular movement where protein filaments are associated with motor proteins\ Performing specialized functions in different cell types; for example, phagocytosis by macrophages, or contraction by muscle cells -What are the functions of microvilli, cilia and flagella Microvilli\ ♣ Finger-like extensions of plasma membrane with actin filament core to help maintain shape\ ♣ Increase surface area of cells in organs specialized for absorption Cilia\ ♣ Hairlike projections composed of microtubules and motor proteins\ ♣ Move in unison to propel substances past the cells\ ♣ Found in great numbers on each cell Flagella\ ♣ Solitary; longer than cilia\ ♣ Found only on sperm cells\ ♣ Beat in a whiplike fashion propelling entire cell (unlike cilia -- propel materials past the plasma membrane)\ Flagella and cilia both are structurally similar to centrioles except contain two central microtubules not found in centrioles -What are the three main structures of the nucleus and what do they do Nuclear envelope -- double membrane that surrounds nucleoplasm\ ♣ Nuclear pores -- where outer and inner envelope membranes come in contact; connect nucleoplasm with cytoplasm allowing substances to move between two locations\ DNA and associated proteins are found in nucleoplasm as a loose structural arrangement known as chromatin\ One or more nucleus are found suspended in nucleoplasm; manufacture ribosomes -Know the process of protein synthesis (see pg 110, figure 3.32 for help) DNA→Transcription→mRNA→Translation→Protein -Know the basics of the cell cycle (this is mostly from lab) Almost all cells go through the cell cycle; process defined as ordered series of events from formation of cell to its reproduction by cell division Interphase, G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, telophase -How does cell cycle control relate to cancer? Cells that cannot pass through checkpoints and cannot be repaired undergo a process of programmed cell death called apoptosis\ This "cellular suicide" will also occur for variety of other reasons; for example, during fetal development hands and feet are initially webbed; cells in "webs" die to separate fingers and toes\ When changes in DNA of a cell cause loss of cell cycle control, uncontrolled cell division results and cells may form a growth or mass known as a tumor -What is the function of the nucleus Nucleus -- governing body that directs activities of the other cellular components; largely determines type of proteins and rate at which cell makes them -What is the basic difference between chromatin and chromosomes (see pg 102 if you have difficulty) chromatin is a lower order of DNA organization, whereas chromosomes are a higher order of DNA organization. -How does DNA code for specific amino acids 1. A triplet of DNA bases (called a codon) codes for one particular amino acid. 2. Each sequence of three bases specifies an amino acid. 3. The genetic code is read in triplet sets of nucleotide bases (codons) to produce proteins. -What is transcription, know the process Transcription - process of making mRNA copy of\ DNA (called transcript)\ ♣ Transcript is built with help of the enzyme RNA polymerase; binds to a gene; brings in complementary nucleotides, linking them together to form mRNA\ ♣ Transcription proceeds in 3 general stages:\ o Initiation\ o Elongation\ o Termination\ -What is translation, know the process Translation: occurs at ribosome where nucleotide sequence of mRNA is translated into amino acid sequence with help of transfer RNA (tRNA) -What is rRNA, mRNA, tRNA what is their role in protein synthesis - **mRNA** carries the coding sequences for protein synthesis and is called transcripts. - **tRNA** carries amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. - **rRNA** forms the core of a cell\'s ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. - **mRNA** transcribes the genetic code from DNA into a form that can be read and used to make proteins. - **rRNA** directs the translation of mRNA into proteins. - **tRNA** gives up its amino acid while bound to mRNA, and with the help of rRNA, bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, creating a polypeptide chain. -What role do ribosomes play in protein synthesis Ribosomes - tiny granular nonmembrane-bound organelles where protein synthesis takes place -What happens during interphase Interphase -- period of growth and preparation for cell division; includes 3 subphases: -What happens during mitosis, be able to describe the process Mitosis -- division of genetic material