docsity-riassunto-geografia-umana-un-approccio-visuale-greiner-dematteis-lanza-utet-universita-2016 en.pdf

Summary "Human geography - a visual approach," Greiner Dematteis Lanza, UTET University, 2016 Geography University of Milan 62 pp. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected])...

Summary "Human geography - a visual approach," Greiner Dematteis Lanza, UTET University, 2016 Geography University of Milan 62 pp. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) HUMAN GEOGRAPHY - A VISUAL APPROACH Greiner, Dematteis, Lanza Chapter 1 - WHAT IS HUMAN GEOGRAPHY? 1.1 introduction to human geography The term geography comes from two Greek words (geo + graphia) meaning "writing of the Earth." Geography is not just a description of the Earth; it is a discourse about what we can observe on the Earth's surface. It is therefore possible to distinguish between: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY -> studies natural environments and components. Uses the methods of the natural sciences. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY -> deals with human beings on Earth. It studies how populations, cultures, societies and economies diversify across Earth's space in relation to changing environmental and historical conditions. It draws on the humanities and social sciences. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY CANNOT IGNORE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: All human activities have some relationship to natural environments. 1.1.1 nature and culture NATURE= everything that is foreign to human creativity CULTURE= A social construction made up of shared practices and beliefs, which functions as a complex dynamic system shaped by people and communities that are in turn shaped by it. ➔ The notion of culture has undergone several modifications over time: Luca Cavalli Sforza defined it as the accumulation of knowledge, skills and innovations resulting from the sum of individual contributions transmitted through generations. ➔ In recent decades, the notion of culture is based on 3 arguments: 1. Culture is a social construction; 2. Culture changes over time; 3. Culture is a complex dynamic system: people create a culture that influences the characteristics of the people in it. In the past, cultures were geographically differentiated (e.g., local, regional, national, supranational cultures) and vertically handed down from one generation to the next. In the last hundred years, so-called horizontal hybridizations (e.g., pizza in the world, social networks) have spread increasingly rapidly. Hybridizations and globalization lead to imposing some common traits on all societies and territories, changing some habits of local societies (e.g., linguistic, food, social organization). In this way, the relationship between culture and nature has made a leap in scale: if it used to take place on a local scale, today it involves the whole of humanity and the entire earth's environment. In the modern age, the idea of dualism between nature and culture was affirmed: culture was what enabled man to place himself above nature, to dominate it and transform it according to his own ends. Idea also used to justify colonialism and social hierarchies. (dominated peoples considered inferior because they were closer to nature) Today the idea of dualism is outdated. There is a tendency to think that man, despite his predisposition for culture, is fully a part of nature and therefore his actions must reckon with certain fundamental laws of nature itself. ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM= making humans' physical, intellectual and cultural differences derive directly from the environment. Theorized anciently as early as the Greeks, environmental determinism became widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, they were quickly abandoned due to 3 elements of criticism: 1. There was no scientifically demonstrable cause-and-effect relationship between environmental stimuli and individuals' response (it was as if they responded to stimuli automatically without the mediation of technological tools, law or political ideologies); 2. Identical environmental factors do not result in similar cultural practices or human behavior; Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected])  3. D.A. was suspected of being an ideology disguised as a scientific theory to justify colonialism in those years. GEOGRAPHIC POSSIBILISM= believes that every natural environment offers a greater or lesser range of alternatives and that in the same natural environment societies and cultures can shape themselves in different ways depending on their choices based on their knowledge and technical capabilities. P.G. was born in the early 20th century in reaction to D.A. The basis of p.g. is that individuals and communities can use their creativity to react to the conditions or constraints of a particular natural environment. The natural environment is not the only or main force shaping societies and cultures. (e.g., forms of ranching, oasis agriculture, oil wells have arisen in the desert.) Such theories helped spread awareness of the role of human action in changes in the environment: it altered natural landscapes by transforming them into CULTURAL LANDSCAPES. The Renaissance, Science Rev. and Industrial Rev. set the stage for man's transformation of the Earth in "human" terms, and at the same time the establishment of the view of nature as a social construction: man tends to modify the natural environment from his idea of nature and how it should be transformed. Ex: "Wilderness" -> concept initially negative but later basis for creation of national parks The dualistic man-nature view can be overcome through the view of the Earth as an integrated and complex dynamic system, which can be summarized in 3 points: 1. The Earth functions as a system consisting of different natural and cultural components that interact in complex ways that cannot be reduced to cause-and-effect relationships; 2. The Earth is subject to continuous changes resulting from both natural events and human action; 3. The human cultural system is a subsystem of the Earth's natural system, so it can only be changed by obeying certain unchangeable natural laws, such as those of climate. 1.1.2 Cultural landscapes and regions GEOGRAPHIC LANDSCAPE concept changed over time: - Early 19th century: introduced by German geographer Humboldt -> landscape designates a certain part of territory, as perceived by people, whose character derives from the action the natural and/or human factors and their interactions (-> art.1 European Landscape Convention) -> dual meaning of subjective perceptions and objective realities - Late 19th-early 20th century: geographic landscape is a purely objective entity (positivism influence) - Mid-20th century: landscape observation becomes main method for studying the relationships between natural environments and settled populations in a deterministic or possibilistic way. -> method criticized by L. Gambi: it suggested only the existence of spatial correlations between visible facts, ignoring those not directly observable. Also criticizes the confusion between landscape (mediation between factual reality and perception) and land and environment (objective geographical entities). - Second half of 1900s: subjective component of landscape becomes mainstay of geographic studies. Landscape is part of the heritage of a territory, the preservation and transformation of which over time must be protected and regulated by respecting the so-called "Structural Invariants," that is, a kind of "genetic" and transformation rules that ensure the reproduction and development of the territorial system itself. Landscape is in fact a living component of the territory that evolves like a living organism. REGIONAL ANALYSIS=an analysis that investigates the often unseen factors that determine the diversity of territories and suggest their division into regions. According to the criteria of mental subdivision of the earth's surface, there are different types of regions, including: - FORMAL REGION -> defined on the basis of one or more homogeneous physical or cultural features, i.e., uniformly distributed throughout the region and not in the neighboring region (e.g., historical regions, alpine reg.) - FUNCTIONAL REGION -> places are connected to each other by more intense relationships than these same places have with the outside world. Ex: ecoregions (same ecosystem); urban functional regions (big city + smaller centers); economic districts; institutional regions (states, unions of states, political-administrative units) Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 1.2 Thinking like a geographer Thinking like a geographer means analyzing and connecting the facts observed on the earth's surface through the concepts of: place, space, spatial spread, spatial interaction, territory, and scale. 1.2.1 Location PLACE= location distinguished by specific physical, cultural and social characteristics. Each place can be identified by its absolute location/geometric position, calculated through its latitude, longitude, and altitude, or by reference to what is around it, i.e., its site and geographic location/situation. SITE= the physical characteristics of a place such as soil form, vegetation, water, etc. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION or SITUATION= the position a place occupies in a larger regional context with reference to the communications network and the possible relations of the place to that context. Characteristics of places: 1. They contribute to the political, social and economic functioning of our world; 2. They offer a reference to human identities ("where are you from?") Sense of place=emotional attachment to specific locations. Closely related to sense of social belonging. 1.2.2 Space SPACE= an extension of the earth's surface of undefined size. There are different types of space: 1. ABSOLUTE SPACE, i.e., a geometric entity whose dimensions, distances, directions and contents can be precisely defined and measured by current metrics (meters, kilometers). Ex: maps; 2. RELATIVE SPACE: is a space whose properties vary depending on the content, i.e., the phenomena taking place. E.g. space-time (space defined by timing, such as an airplane flight); relational space -> RELATIONAL SPACE: space defined by human interactions, relationships between events and their contingencies (=> changeability). Ex: spaces of commerce (contingency between supply and demand + favorable diplomatic relations), social networks and chat platforms. Relative spaces can thus be defined as social constructions. 3. GEOGRAPHIC SPACE: it is a relative and relational space: its properties depend on the relationships and interactions present among the subjects and objects that each geography puts forth (geographic descriptions cannot represent the billions of inanimate and animate things, but are the result of a choice based on what one wants to represent). To say that geography describes terrestrial spaces is to say that it is potentially concerned with all possible relationships between everything located on the earth's surface. In this sense, absolute space and relative space overlap. Adopting a spatial perspective means paying special attention to the differences between one place and another, between one space and another, in the dynamics of society and the relationship between environment and society. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION=arrangement of phenomena on the earth's surface Based on the SPatial VARIATION= changes in the distribution of a phenomenon from one place to another study of the spatial distribution SPatial CORRELATION= The degree to which two or more phenomena share the same spatial distribution and of phenomena variation. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 1.2.3 Spatial diffusion SPATIAL DIFFUSION= Movement of people, ideas, fashions, diseases, etc., from one place to another in different times and ways depending on the phenomenon under consideration. In the phenomenon of spatial diffusion, motion (=> spatial dim.) is an essential dimension. There are 4 different types of diffusion: 1. DIFFUSION BY RELOCALIZATION -> migrations; 2. DIFFUSION BY CONTACT -> a phenomenon (e.g., cold) spreads among people who come in contact with each other; 3. GERARCHIC DIFFUSION -> top-down diffusion according to a rank-ordered sequence (e.g., information diffusion in a multinational company: headquarters -> regional directorates -> sales offices) 4. DIFFUSION BY STIMULATION -> the spread of an idea or practice helps generate a new idea. It greatly influences the production and marketing of goods (e.g., fast-food, automobile industry) Different types of diffusion often act simultaneously on the same phenomenon, and the rate and direction of spatial diffusion are also influenced by the presence of absorbing barriers, which stop diffusion (e.g., legal or physical barriers) or permeable barriers, which usually slow it down. 1.2.4 Spatial interaction and globalization GLOBALIZATION= general sense: certain natural or human phenomena cover the entire globe allowing all places to interact with each other. Narrow sense: the dominance that market relations have over all other social and cultural activities and expressions. It is the result of the worldwide extension of the SPACE INTERACTION= relationship between two or more subjects in the course of which they exchange ideas, goods, services and modify their actions in relation to each other's ideas and behavior. Spatial interactions between human subjects developed a few centuries ago, with the arrival of Europeans to the rest of the hitherto isolated continents. We speak of globalization only in the last few decades, that is, after information technology, telecommunications and aerial interconnections allowed a circulation of people, goods, money and information now extended to every location on the planet. The driving force behind this world unification has been the capitalist market. Globalization similarly intervenes in culture, international relations and military interventions. In contrast, globalization is little or absent in the labor market (clandestinity), in the legislative sphere (human rights). Spatial interaction is influenced by 3 factors: 1. COMPLEMENTARITIES: a place or region finds an answer to its need for goods and services elsewhere, creating a spatial interaction that spreads over longer or shorter distances. (e.g., trade, cooperation, exchange of artwork between museums, university research) It is the result of spatial variation, which is linked to the availability of natural resources or specific economic, social and cultural conditions. 2. TRANSFERABILITY: is inversely proportional to the energy required (cost) to move a good. High level of transferability = easily moved, low volume, high value goods ≠ Low level of transf. ⇨ Transferability affected by distance friction (the way distance can hinder displacements) 3. ALTERNATIVE OPPORTUNITY: the existence of a place that, for the same relocation costs, can offer an requested good on more advantageous terms. Alternative opportunities make clear the importance of accessibility, that is, ease of access to a place. It is usually expressed in terms of travel time or cost. -> distance is the most important factor in the accessibility of a place! BUT can also refer to different relative spaces (e.g., space defined by economic competitive relationships). In addition, accessibility also increases with the connectivity of places (e.g., fiber optics, airports, highways). Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) The intensity of spatial interaction as a rule decreases with distance. The overall iteration between subjects, as a source of opportunities, knowledge, innovations, etc., is also affected by the distance between them. Maximum intensity -> central areas of large cities (+ population density) Problematic intensity -> more remote rural areas The diminishing effect of distance can be an important variable in decisions about the location of a business or public service. Technological innovations in transportation and communications have made possible the phenomenon of SPACE- TEMPORAL COMPRESSION (David Harvey, geographer), that is, the reduction of distance friction and the impression of having places closer to each other in terms of time and space. Globalization does not change the absolute distance between places, but it can change their accessibility. 1.2.5 Territory TERRITORY= space of interactions between subjects (individuals and collectivities), correlated with the set of interactions between the same subjects and the external environment. It is embodied in the humanized (or anthropized) geographic space and the variety of its landscapes. It is the space of interactions between living beings. In geography, intersubjective relations and territorial ties are always considered together: the relational space of human geography is made up of territorialized intersubjective relations. Phenomena that seem to be purely cultural or social or political always turn out to be somehow related to the territorial relationships that people have with their living environments. => there can never be actors without territory nor territory without actors. 1.2.6 Cartographic scale and geographic scale Scale is what allows us to represent the Earth, or a part of it, in a reduced size, as is the case, for example, with globes. In geographic use there are two types of scales: -CARTOGRAPHIC SCALE: expresses the relationship between distances on the map and actual distances on the earth's surface. In this sense, large-scale and small-scale maps are distinguished. Scale is defined through an arithmetic ratio (e.g. 1:10,000 1cm corresponds to 100 meters); - GEOGRAPHIC (or observation) SCALE: indicates the level of analysis used for a given study or project, e.g., house, neighborhood, a city, a region. With a variable observation scale, one can define a small scale or a large scale, depending on how circumscribed the space is. (The smaller it is, the smaller the scale will be). It must be remembered that in geography the global view must always be present, at whatever scale of observation we place ourselves: the "global" comes from the set of relationships and actions that have their origin in localized behavior, that is, in facts that occur at the lower scales. Likewise, what happens at the global scale interacts with the lower scales. 1.3 The tools of geography There is a wide variety of tools that can be used in field research. It is necessary to distinguish between techniques and tools. TECHNIQUES -> are the product of our operational knowledge and skills TOOLS -> tools we use to improve some of our procedures and methodologies 1.3.1 Maps ❖ REDUCED -> representations of the Earth or parts thereof in reduced size ❖ SYMBOLIC -> different objects are represented by symbols Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected])  ❖ APPROSSIMATE -> it is impossible to represent the earth's curved surface in plan; plus among all the objects on it, only a few are reproduced, depending on the purpose. Presence of a LEGEND Using a SCALE In order to represent the Earth's curved surface as accurately as possible, geometric transformations called CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS are used, which can be EQUIDISTANT if they maintain proportions between distances (road maps); EQUIVALENT if they maintain proportional areas (political and economic maps); and ISOGONAL if they maintain exact angles between meridians and parallels (nautical maps). No card can maintain all three proportions at once: depending on the projection used, the deformations on the card will vary. The maps take different names depending on the portion of the surface they are intended to represent: MAPPAMONDS/PLANISPHERE -> whole world GEOGRAPHIC MAPS -> continent/country/broad region. Scale from 1:50 million to 1:100,000. tourist maps and road TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS -> portions of the territory in great detail. Scale between 1:100,000 and 1:10,000. MAPS -> scale < 1:10,000. Cadastral -> property limits. Plans -> city General papers separated into: PHYSICAL -> natural traits POLICIES -> borders, communication routes, cities THEMES -> study of individual phenomena and variations CARTOGRAMS -> numerical data are shown on a map and represented by different colors or figures geometric (e.g. MOSAIC CARTOGRAM) 1.3.2 Remote sensing Remote sensing is a tool capable of detecting certain phenomena related to the Earth's surface and collecting information about them through sensors and other instruments placed far from the subject being studied, sometimes even on satellites. In geography it is used to monitor the extent of urban areas or the location of pollutant spills. 1.3.3 The GPS: Global Positioning System A global positioning system (GPS) uses a constellation of artificial satellites and the radio signals they transmit to determine the absolute position of people, places, or features on the earth's surface by measuring the time it takes the GPS receiver to receive a signal from the satellite and thus calculating the distance from the satellite to the receiver. Through trigonometry it is possible to calculate the longitude, latitude and altitude of the point where the receiver is located. The first GPS satellite was launched into orbit in 1970, and total coverage of the earth's surface was achieved in 1995, from which a real boom in the use of this system for civilian purposes then ensued. GPS has greatly simplified the process of acquiring Earth-related data and for creating maps. It is also used to facilitate the calculation of legal boundaries of private property, agricultural land, census different species of plants and animals or to monitor the condition of crops. 1.3.4 The GIS: Geographic Information System GIS (geographic information system) enhances the functionality of maps and spatial analysis of georeferenced data, that is, data that is assigned a precise location on the earth's surface. Georeferencing of data can be done directly (referring to latitude and longitude) or indirectly (deriving geographic coordinates from other spatial information, such as an address, zip code, and so on). Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) GIS is built from a combination of hardware and software that allows georeferenced data to be entered, managed, analyzed, and visualized. Its system relates collected data by allowing them to be displayed on interactive maps that allow users to click on information they are interested in to get more detail. GIS has great potential to facilitate problem solving, build models related to social and environmental conditions, and contribute to decisions in the field of planning. Weaknesses of GIS: Program software and compatible hardware are very expensive; Limited accessibility to geographic data: some are in the public domain, others are accessible only if purchased => accessibility of use limited to individuals who can afford it Proposed partial and strongly Western-centered worldview, as it reflects the criteria for choosing and surveying available information, excluding certain aspects of reality and emphasizing others. Chapter 2 - ENVIRONMENT, SOCIETY, TERRITORY. 2.1. Ecosystems ECOSYSTEM= a collection of living organisms, the interactions among them and with the physical environment in which they live, and the flows of energy and nutrients through them. In geography ENVIRONMENT= all those biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors with which people, animals and other organisms coexist and interact. Scholars use the concept of ecosystem to study the interactions between different components of the environment. The complexity of an ecosystem is derived from its BIODIVERSITY = the amount of species contained in an ecosystem All ecosystems are interconnected, and the totality of these relationships constitute the BIOSPHERE= the totality of ecosystems on Earth, that area of the Earth that allows plant and animal life and extends from the Earth's crust to the lowest parts of the atmosphere. 2.1.1. The key concepts of ecology NATURAL CAPITAL= a concept that includes the goods and services provided by nature. Without natural capital, there would be no life on Earth. It is composed of 4 basic elements: 1. Renewable resources; 2. Nonrenewable resources; 3. Terrestrial biodiversity; 4. The "services" rendered by ecosystems. 1,2,3: assets or reserves of natural resources. 4: active work of natural processes in providing services such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycle, pollination, etc. Natural resources are divided into: - Nonrenewable resources -> considered depleted when conditions for their regeneration cease to exist - Renewable resources -> regenerate within a reasonable time both naturally and with human intervention. Nonrenewable resource quantities are fixed and therefore subject to depletion if totally withdrawn and consumed. The total depletion of resources is preceded by their ECONOMIC depletion: when the cost of extracting the resource exceeds its economic value. With regard to renewable resources, it is preferable to apply the concept of SUSTAINABLE YIELD: the maximum amount of a resource that can be exploited and used without endangering its ability to renew and regenerate itself. However, this does not take into account the potential damage that the resource uniquely Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) exploited could cause to the ecosystem. It is then preferred to speak of ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE YIELD, that is, such that resources are preserved for future generations. 2.1.2. Environmental degradation Environmental degradation due to human activities can be direct (e.g., oil extraction and proliferation of toxic substances) or indirect (e.g., road construction in mountainous or hilly areas without verification of environmental impact). There is environmental degradation when one or more of the following conditions occur: 1. A resource is exploited faster than the time for its regeneration; 2. Human activities damage the long-term productivity or biodiversity of a place; 3. When concentrations of pollutants exceed the maximum level allowed by law. Because the definition of environmental degradation does not take into account human activities beneficial to the environment, a new view of the problem has emerged according to which a more comprehensive assessment of environmental degradation subtracts natural regeneration and all the ways in which human activities have contributed to restoring the environment from this definition. 2.1.3. Common property resources COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES (or COMMON NATURAL GOODS) = natural resources, equipment or facilities shared by a clearly identifiable community of users (e.g., forests, waters, pastures, fishing grounds). ≠ FREE ACCESS RESOURCES= assets over which no single individual has claims of exclusivity and which are available to anyone (e.g., air, seas, solar energy, national parks). Around the world, many of the people who do not personally own land depend on common natural assets to obtain necessary resources. Researchers have long studied the relationship between the commons, free markets and environmental degradation. In particular, Garrett Hardin argues that private property provides only part of the solution to the problem of the "tragedy of the commons" (individual freedom of choice over common land leads all to ruin) in that it can prevent environmental degradation of land, but not air pollution, as this certainly cannot be divided into private lots. Thus, government policies are essential to prevent the tragedy of the commons. Hardin's theory was later criticized by Elinor Ostrom: its limitation was the erroneous rule-free view of common property, which is instead regulated by traditional laws or practices. Only recently has the realization begun to spread among scholars that local traditional knowledge plays a relevant role in the management of common property resources (e.g. Fiemme Valley Community). 2.2. Nonrenewable energy resources Nonrenewable energy resources include fossil fuels and uranium. 2.2.1 oil Oil is a versatile energy source for those industrialized countries that have the necessary infrastructure for extraction and processing. It is used as heating fuel, gasoline/kerosene/diesel, plastics, cosmetics. There is no telling how much certain reserves (=estimated amount of a resource that could be extracted in the future) of oil amount to. Ten years ago it was estimated that oil resources would be enough for another 40 years, but this is not certain data. Another topic of study is the identification of peak oil production in the world, on which there is much disagreement among scholars. In particular, ecologist Hubbert was the first to develop the concept that crude oil extraction rises in the short run, peaking, and then declines rapidly as the cost of extraction increases. Although criticized by several scholars, Hubbert's work is important because he pointed out Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) the imminent phenomenon of energy transition resulting from oil depletion and for which we should have prepared in advance. Oil production and the price of oil are coordinated by OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), an international organization that protects oil-exporting countries from the market dominance of a few often Western oil companies that began to dominate as early as the 1960s. To coordinate the supply of oil, OPEC has for many years made use of production quotas, but it has encountered great difficulties because states, when crude oil prices are high, are tempted to break agreements and exceed their quotas in order to get more revenue. There are great geographic disparities in oil production and consumption patterns: US 1st production and 1st consumption; Saudi Arabia 2nd production and >5th consumption; Japan produces no oil but 3rd in consumption. A major transformation is taking place in global oil demand and consumption, which are estimated to grow by 60% over the next 30 years. Between 1997 and 2007, oil consumption in China increased by 88% and in India by 50%. 2.2.2 Coal Coal is the most abundant and widespread fossil fuel in the world. The main concentrations are found in Russia, the US and China. Reserves have an estimated lifetime of 133 years. Employed for thousands of years. Uses: heating water, generating steam power, electricity, and steel production. Second largest fossil fuel used in the world. Problems in mining: OPEN-SCALE MINING system ("mountaintop removal) -> major environmental problems: all vegetation is removed from the surface, then with large explosives the rock above the deposits is removed and transported to surrounding areas. Finally minerals are extracted by excavators. However, land restoration regulations are often ignored. Problems in use: a very polluting product, it burns less cleanly than other fossil fuels. Hence the phenomenon of acid rain. Coal releases mercury, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. ACID RAIN= significantly more acidic precipitation than normal, due to human activities, which can damage terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 2.2.3 Uranium and nuclear energy Uranium is a naturally radioactive element found in some ores. It is not a fossil fuel but is still a nonrenewable resource. Nuclear power production and atomic weapons. Estimated reserves for another century. Nuclear power: 6 percent of energy consumed worldwide. Power plants scattered around the world unevenly for 3 reasons: 1. Specialized knowledge is required for the ability to manage nuclear power generation 2. Huge cost of building a nuclear reactor 3. Complex infrastructure is needed to support nuclear power plants (e.g., generators, waste storage facilities) Nuclear advantages: nuclear material can be stored for a long time; small amount of uranium produces a lot of energy; less land damage from mining; low CO2 emissions. Nuclear disadvantages: high plant, production and waste disposal costs; subject to catastrophic risks. In Italy, two referendums (1986 and 2011) ended nuclear programs in the country that had been introduced in 1975 with the construction of four power plants. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 2.3 Renewable energy resources When we think about the world's different energy production systems, it is useful to distinguish between: - COMMERCIAL ENERGY-> historically always produced by fossil fuels, nuclear or hydroelectric plants. Consumers access and purchase commercial energy through infrastructure networks such as the power grid. It is often consumed far from where it is produced. Energy supply and consumption data easily tracked. - NONCOMMERCIAL ENERGY -> meets energy needs in rural areas of most developing countries and is now beginning to take hold in rich countries as well. It is consumed locally or on a regional scale. Little information regarding energy consumption (estimated to coincide with 1/5 of the world's population without electricity). Main source of noncommercial energy production: RENEWABLE ENERGY (or ALTERNATIVE ENERGY), such as biomass, marine energy, solar, wind, geothermal, and small-scale hydropower (large-scale is considered separately because of its significant environmental impact). 2.3.1 Biomass energy BIOMASS= the totality of non-fossil organic material in an ecosystem, including animal and plant mass, its waste and residues. Most common sources for biomass: wood, coal, crop residues, cattle manure. Two ways to obtain energy from biomass: direct (burning the unprocessed material and using the energy for heating) and indirect (converting biomass to biogas or biofuel using naturally occurring microbes). It is the main renewable resource used in the world, especially as a fuel for cooking. In particular, wood is used in this regard, however, the production and burning of which is harmful both to the environment and to the health and socio-economic condition of workers in the forests. One of the main biomass-enabling technologies is biogas or methane fermenters, which can provide energy in urban or rural areas on a domestic or industrial scale. 2.3.2 Hydropower It is exploited globally for less than 1/3 of its potential. It is the third largest resource for electricity production after coal and natural gas. In the most industrialized countries, hydropower makes up a tiny part of total energy production. Between the 1930s and 1970s was the period of maximum construction of large dams globally. Although they brought the advantage of being able to irrigate fields throughout the year, they did not solve the problem of economic-social disparities and generated several environmental problems: they interrupted the course of rivers, altering the ecosystem of the seabed; they led to heavy consequences for populations (forced relocations or loss of livelihoods). Today, small hydropower (PSI) facilities are preferred as a more sustainable alternative. They generate less than 10 gigawatts of electricity and supply local communities or individual household units and can become a source of income for households by selling superfluous generation. 2.3.3 Solar and wind power Solar energy can be stored in two ways: - PASSIVE ACCUMULATION -> takes advantage of the shape and exposure of a building and the materials with which it is constructed to capture sunlight. - ACTIVE ACCUMULATION -> Makes use of various tools: solar panels, mirrors, photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight into electricity, other systems that convert light into heat. Limited diffusion due to technological and economic barriers. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) The sun can also be considered the source of wind energy: winds are generated by the irregular heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Wind turbines harness the energy produced by moving air masses by converting it to electricity. WIND MILL -> first tool of harnessing wind energy, to grind grain and pump water. WIND BLADES -> today wind blades are used to produce electricity. To exploit it for commercial purposes, so-called WIND PARKS (concentration of wind turbines in a suitable area) are built, but these can cause problems regarding the protection of landscapes. Although it still covers a small portion of energy production, wind power utilization is growing. 2.3.4 Geothermal energy Derived from the Earth's interior: high pressures combined with the slow radioactive decay of elements in the planet's core produce enormous amounts of heat that are absorbed by surrounding rocky materials. It is exploited by digging deep wells to reach underground reservoirs of heated water. This water is used as a direct source of heat for homes and buildings; if converted to steam it can be used to drive turbines and generate electricity. One type of geothermal energy is also that used by heat pumps, which exploit temperature differences between the subsurface and the outdoors to store thermal energy. The largest geothermal energy producing country is Iceland. 2.4 The interactions between society and the environment 2.4.1 The greenhouse effect and global warming SERRA EFFECT= a natural process in which certain gases in the atmosphere let short-wave radiation pass from the Sun to Earth and absorb the long-wave radiation re-emitted from Earth's surface, causing it to warm. The greenhouse effect is a natural process and one that enables the existence of life on Earth. Concerns about the greenhouse effect are about rising concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities. CO2 concentration has increased dramatically since the Industrial Revolution (-> burning of fossil fuels). The human activity that contributes most to the release of methane into the air is livestock farming. Another major contributor is rice cultivation, due to anaerobic decomposition processes in flooded fields. Methane can also diffuse into the atmosphere when digging wells or transporting gas in pipes. As for the diffusion of nitrous oxide (N2O), major sources include agriculture (nitrogen fertilizers), motor vehicles and coal mines. Hydrofluorocarbons, on the other hand, are produced through synthetic processes for human uses, such as refrigerants for refrigerators and air conditioners. Human activities have amplified the greenhouse effect by contributing to GLOBAL SURRISE= increase in global temperature attributed at least in part to human activities, which have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming potentially may affect the continental layers of Greenland and Antarctica, the melting thickness of which would lead to rising sea levels. Rising temperatures also have serious consequences for ecosystems and precipitation frequency. In addition, the phenomenon raises environmental and ethical issues: Pacific islands contribute higher temperat. and altered rainfall cycle). 2.4.3 The goal of greenhouse gas reduction For more than 150 years, developed countries have contributed disproportionately to the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide and several other anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Therefore, many believe that these same countries are obliged to recognize their historical role in the increase of greenhouse gases and implement measures aimed at stabilizing, or rather reducing, their emissions. To this end, the United Nations has convened numerous international conferences on climate change co, known as Conferences of Parties (COPs), since 1995. The main ones were COP3 in Kyoto, COP 15 in Copenhagen, and COP 21 in Paris. At the Kyoto conference (1997) 38 states signed a "protocol" committing the most industrialized countries to a 5 percent reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by 2012. However, it lacked the signature of the United States, where the agreement was rejected by the Senate because it was deemed harmful to the country's economy. COP 15 in Copenhagen (2009) ended with an agreement signed by 120 countries, also aimed at reducing emissions responsible for the greenhouse effect. That agreement represented a step forward in recognizing the seriousness of the problem, but it was reduced to a declaration of (non-binding) intent to contain global warming to within 2°C. It thus had results limited to a few countries, such as those in the EU, that began their commitment to policies to curb CO2 emissions. The Paris Convention (2015) saw 195 countries sign a binding agreement (but without sanctions) to contain the global average temperature increase from 1.5° to 2° by 2020. The convention marked a breakthrough in the dispute between old industrialized countries, historically responsible for climate change, and poor countries that, dependent on agriculture, suffered more damage, joined by countries most threatened by rising sea levels. Financial compensation was awarded to the most threatened countries, which, although deemed insufficient, enshrined the principle of responsibility of the most polluting countries. The agreement also marks a point of no return in the fight against global warming because it was signed by countries whose economies depend heavily on fossil fuels, such as the U.S., Russia, Saudi Arabia, India and China. The achievement of the Convention's goals will depend on how it succeeds in transforming a world economy that is still based on the use of coal and hydrocarbons to a GREEN ECONOMY, that is, to an economy that not only produces wealth but also generates environmentally and socio-culturally sustainable development, based on the efficient use of natural resources and the opportunities offered by the Earth's ecosystem, adapting to its natural laws. After the economic crisis of 2007-2008, many governments began to promote policies that see the green economy as a possible accelerator of economic recovery. Incentives are provided for energy production from renewable sources (hydropower, biomass, solar, wind, geothermal), waste recycling, energy conservation in building air conditioning, transportation and sustainable mobility. All this has created a thriving and innovative economic sector aimed at producing machinery, components, software and various services. To measure "green growth," the OECD proposes the use of indicators such as energy productivity (GDP per unit of primary energy), sectoral energy intensity and the share of renewables in primary energy supply and electricity generation. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected])  Chapter 3 - POPULATIONS AND MIGRATIONS. 3.1. Population: basic concepts 3.1.1 Population distribution and density When geographers want to study the pressure exerted by a certain population on the territory, they calculate its density. It can be: - ARITHMETIC DENSITY= ratio of the area of an area to the number of its inhabitants. It is usually measured in ab./km2 - PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY= ratio of the productive agricultural area of a given territory to the number of its inhabitants. Settlements tend to be concentrated in territories characterized by specific natural conditions (coasts, plains, waterways...). In addition, Earth's population is becoming increasingly urban, and today just over 50 percent of the population lives in cities. 3.1.2 Fertility Fertility refers to NATALITY, that is, the number of births within a given population. Major demographic changes depend on birth rates and mortality, both of which are influenced by various factors. Demographers measure fertility through two indicators: - NATALITY RATE -> the most widely used. Describes birth trends within a society as a whole. Calculates the annual number of live births per thousand inhabitants, without taking into account the age groups within them. It makes it possible to estimate the size of households and make predictions about numerical trends in the population. When this rate has a value of 2.1 a population has reached the GENERATION REPLACEMENT LEVEL, which is necessary to reproduce without decreasing in numbers. - FECONDITY RATE -> Average annual number of live births per woman of childbearing age (15-50 years). Fertility varies from region to region and can be affected by both biological factors (age at which one becomes sexually active) and cultural patterns governing reproduction (use or non-use of contraceptive practices, female subordination to family planning, level of education). Global fertility rates have been steadily declining, with rates particularly pronounced in some areas of the Earth, such that there are nearly 80 states where the level of generation replacement is not reached. Governments can control fertility by introducing natalist or anti-natalist policies aimed at encouraging or limiting population growth, influencing people's reproductive behaviors and thus fertility rates (e.g., natalist policies in France; anti-natalist policies in China, the "one-child policy" see p. 81) 3.1.3 Mortality Calculated with MORTALITY RATE = annual number of deaths per 1,000 inhabitants Lowest mortality rates: Qatar and Kuwait ( areas defined by demographers where life expectancy is significantly higher than the world average. They are 5: Loma Linda in California, Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica, Barbagia in Sardinia, Ikaria in Greece, and Okinawa in Japan. Life expectancy can vary greatly, for example as a result of a growth in poverty or the outbreak of wars or riots in a country (e.g., in Russia) or according to the spread of diseases (e.g., AIDS, which in Botswana and Lesotho has reduced life expectancy by 20). Another important indicator of a population's quality of life is the INFANT MORTALITY RATE, which is the number of births per 1,000 that die before reaching one year of age. 3.2 The composition of the population and its changes Each population has a specific composition, given by the characteristics of the groups that make it up. One of the most popular tools for representing the composition of a population is the age pyramid. 3.2.1 The age pyramid AGE PYRAMID = histogram representing the composition of a population divided by age group and gender (M and F). The vertical axis represents the percentage of people born in a given time period. On the other hand, the horizontal axis indicates the percentage by which each age group contributes to the total population. Three categories of population pyramids can be identified: high-growth populations, slow-growth populations, and declining populations. 3.2.2 The dependency ratio DEPENDENCY INDEX= ratio of the working-age population to the population under 15 and over 65. It is called the dependent population because since it is not of working age it is unable to procure its livelihood. This index makes it possible to make predictions about the changes that society will undergo in the future, based on its demographic evolution. (e.g. so many young people -> need for schools) the index should then be divided by 100: the closer to 100, the higher the dependency index becomes. 3.2.3 The natural growth rate NATURAL GROWTH RATE= annual percentage of growth of a population, not including migration flows. A population has a natural growth rate when the number of births exceeds the number of deaths. The natural growth rate can also be zero (e.g., Austria) or negative (e.g., Russia). Demographers often use natural growth rates to calculate the POPULATION DOUBLE TIME, that is, the number of years it takes for the population to double in size (formula: 70/natural growth rate). These calculations are not predictions because growth rates can change over the years. 3.2.4 The demographic transition model DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION= A country's transition over time from high birth and death rates to much lower values. The demographic transition model is the result of numerous studies of population dynamics in Europe. It relates changes in the natural population growth rate to social changes derived from medical advances, urbanization and industrialization. It describes the path that led a country to reduce its birth and death rates. Limitations of the model: does not take migration into account => partial representation of demographic changes; does not always provide reliable predictions because it was built from the European experience and therefore is not fully applicable to developing countries. Demographers and geographers have observed that when a country enters the demographic transition, there is an epidemiological transition, i.e., a change in the type of diseases that drive population mortality. It is characterized by a shift from the massive spread of infectious diseases to the spread of chronic diseases as a result of changes in lifestyle (e.g., urbanization, industrialization). Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 3.3 Sex and gender differences 3.3.1 Sexuality, identity and space SEXUALITY = a fundamental element of social and individual identity, resulting from sexual orientations, attitudes, desires and practices. GENDER= cultural or social characteristics that in the common thinking of a society are attributed to male or female gender membership. Until the 1970s, geographers ignored the role of sexuality in defining people's identities, contributing to the completely unfounded idea that understanding the world requires an approach that conforms to the heterosexual norm, based on the definition of clearly separated male and female gender roles. Instead, today more and more geographers are also studying how sexualities of different types can influence the configuration and use of space (e.g., calculation of the gender gap, geographic evolution of openness to lgbt rights). Among the many factors that influence gender roles, an important component is the often unfounded beliefs regarding the different abilities and aptitudes of men and women. 3.3.2 The index of masculinity MASCOLINITY INDEX = percentage ratio of the number of males to the number of females in a population. Under normal conditions, slightly more males than females are born, resulting in a natural masculinity index of 105/100. Factors that can determine disparity n.men and n.women: mortality rates (+ high in men and - high in women), wars (male soldiers), migration dynamics, cultural preference in male child (e.g. India and China -> selective abortion). 3.3.3 Gender inequality and gender roles. GENDER DISEQUALITY= inequality between men and women in opportunities, rights, benefits, behaviors and social status. The mass media and various religious, educational, political, or corporate institutions often contribute to reinforcing gender role divisions (e.g., women's right to vote, female segregation in Islamic and Hindu communities and in Saudi Arabia). The persistence of gender roles can generate social barriers and limitations to women's opportunities, creating gender inequalities (e.g., income gap). The GENDER GAP INDEX is an index designed in 2006 to assess how effective the measures taken in many countries around the world to reduce gender inequality are. Marked gender inequality may indicate the institutionalization of status differences between men and women. STATUS= placing a value on a person's knowledge and skills. 3.4 The carrying capacity of a territory Population ecology studies the relationship between n. of inhabitants and environmental conditions of an area. 3.4.1 The Malthusian theory of population The theory of economist Malthus (1798) argued that in the face of exponential population growth, the number of people living in a country soon exceeds the maximum sustainable size of that country's food resources. This would favor the appearance of repressive obstacles, such as famines or epidemics, which increase mortality and reduce population, making the size of a state's population directly related to its productive capacity. Over time, the idea became established that each territory and the world as a whole has a certain carrying capacity, due to the limitation of its resources and thus the number of people who can live there in acceptable living conditions. The weaknesses of Malthusian theory are: the view of the environment as the main factor determining the possible production of food resources and thus population size. In reality, food scarcity in certain populations results from the unequal distribution of incomes. In addition, carrying capacity is not constant but can vary due to technological innovations. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 3.4.2 poverty and food insecurity One of the main problems related to population growth is that of food insecurity, or the physical or economic inability of some people to access food, due to factors such as poverty, overpopulation, wars and natural disasters. The most serious consequence of poverty is HUNGER (physiological need to eat), which can be related to forms of DENUTRITION (consists of insufficient nutrition) or MALNUTRITION (consists of a diet lacking certain essential foods such as protein, vitamins and iron). The geographical distribution of poverty shows strong imbalances worldwide. It aigge 52% of the world's population (FAO data), particularly countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Although world food availability has increased since 1970, overproduction coexists with undernutrition. Hunger and malnutrition are present for three main reasons: 1. In rural areas, many farmers still live on subsistence farming, but often, due to natural causes or scarcity of arable land and lack of appropriate technology, they are unable to achieve the adequate level of subsistence 2. In city environment there are people too poor to buy food 3. About 40 million people suffer from hunger and famine due to wars. 3.5 Migrations MIGRATION= permanent or long-term movement of an individual or group of people from their place of origin to another place. CIRCULATION= temporary, often cyclical movement of an individual or group of people from their place of origin to another place. Includes temporary migration and commuting movements. Another fundamental driver of demographic change is migration. Each migration involves an EMIGRATION, and an IMMIGRATION. The calculation of NET MIGRATORY BALANCE considers changes in the population of a given place as a result of immigrations and emigrations -> smn= n. immigrants - n. emigrants. Demographic change can be calculated through the demographic equation (natural population growth + migration balance). 3.5.1 Voluntary migration and forced migration FORCED MIGRATIONS -> one person/social group/government forces another individual or group of people to change their place of residence, without their having any say in the destination, timing, or any other characteristic. (e.g., North American natives, Bosnians during Balkan war, African slaves in America) VOLUNTARY MIGRATIONS -> long-term or permanent transfers made as a result of choice. Most migration belongs to the latter category and has some common characteristics, such as: transfers from poor and/or warring countries to rich countries; rural->urban flows; + men than women leaving. 3.5.2 Push and pull factors All migrants face a set of PUSH FACTORS and PULL FACTORS that contribute to their choice to migrate. Among voluntary migration, a distinction should be made between: - Those where choice is necessitated by conditions of extreme poverty and insecurity -> people in poor countries reduced to starvation - Those where the choice depends on the desire and opportunities to improve normal living conditions -> researchers, academics, managers INTERNAL MIGRATION= consists of the movement of people between regions of the same country. E.g. from rural to urban areas. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 3 factors that most influence on domestic migration choice: 1. Age -> + youth and families with preadolescents 2. Job opportunities 3. The search for more favorable places from the natural and environmental pdv People who move from rural areas often move to other rural areas (India) or urban areas (China). Some people, on the other hand, move from cities to other cities (+ widespread in developed or developing countries with a high degree of urbanization); others move from cities to rural areas. Migration to cities is inevitable and not always negative because it is aimed at increasing one's income and accessing better services and health care. 3.5.3 Global migration trends INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION occurs when an individual moves permanently or for a long period of time to a state other than his or her country of origin. To date there are 214 million international migrants; the number of internal migrants is far higher (740 million). International migration takes on global dimensions when it takes place between different continents, as has increasingly been the case. About 35 percent of international migrants move to more developed countries; 34 percent migrate between developing countries. Only 31 percent, then, migrate from a developed country. NET EMIGRATION= there are more emigrants than immigrants (e.g., Asia, Africa, Latin America) NET IMMIGRATION= there are more immigrants than emigrants (North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand) For a global view of migration flows, reference is made to MIGRATORY CORRIDORS, i.e., migrant routes from a point of departure to a point of arrival. Eg corridor between Afghanistan and Iran; between Syria and Turkey/Lebanon/Jordan/Europe. Refugee movements tend to be regional or interregional. 3.5.4 Environmental refugees Environmental refugees are those who migrate due to causes related to the planet's climate changes, such as drought and desertification, rising sea levels, floods, and cyclones, which have made their lands unlivable. Environmental migrations prove problematic because they lead to the permanent uprooting of millions of people from their lands. In addition, refugees are entire families with children in need of instruction and elderly people who are no longer self-sufficient, with no more possessions. These phenomena result in true humanitarian emergencies that can lead to conflict and unrest in host states, so the entire world community must take charge of the problem. Migration to North America In the past century the U.S. and Canada were the most popular destinations for European migrants. Today they come largely from Latin America and Asia. Both countries set maximum quotas on the number of migrants who can be accepted each year. Until 1965 these were based on the nationality of the migrants, with European preferences, while now they are based on categories of migrants (workers, reunifications, etc.). Latin America Until the 1950s Latin America was a major destination for immigration from Spain, Portugal and Italy; due to political and economic instability in South America the trend has reversed and Latin America is now a major source region. Until the early 2000s, the largest country of emigration was Mexico, from which people left for the U.S.; now departures have decreased and Mexico is becoming a popular destination for immigrants from South American countries (especially Colombia). Europe Europe has historically been a land of emigration, but since the 1950s the trend has reversed. Initially the most popular destination countries were France and Germany, and immigrants came from other European states (e.g., Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece), and later also from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) In the 1980s and 1990s these migration trends underwent major changes due to two major events: the fall of the USSR, which led to displacements between the newly formed states, and the wars in the Balkans, which forced millions of people to seek political asylum and refugee status in European countries. POLITICAL ASYLUM= Protection from persecution granted by a state to refugees from a foreign country REFUGEe= One who flees to a country other than his or her own to ensure personal safety or to escape persecution. In 2014, 600,000 people sought asylum in Europe, and most European states now have a positive migrant balance, which offsets the decrease in population. This type of immigration creates several problems: the spatial inequality of migrant flows, which are concentrated in the most accessible countries (Italy, Greece, Spain or Hungary, Slovenia and Austria); the crisis of the Schengen Convention due to the blocking of the borders of some states that do not want to receive migrants. Migration in Italy Until the mid-20th century, Italy was a great land of emigration: the most common destinations were America, Argentina, Central and Western Europe, Canada and Australia. Following economic development, beginning in the 1970s Italy became a land of immigration rather than emigration. The factors that enabled the reversal of the situation were: the proximity to the southern shore of the Mediterranean; the socioeconomic difference between Italy and the immigrants' countries of origin. The distribution of immigrants in the country is uneven, with most (86 percent) residing in the north and center and 14 percent in the south. Since the 1970s, immigrants came from Albania, North Africa, South America, and Asia. Since 2011, a new phenomenon of migration from North African and sub-Saharan African countries has been established. Africa Africans make up 9 percent of international migrants, and there is a great deal of interstate migration within the continent. The long exploitation of mineral and agricultural resources and slavery by Europeans led to migration flows that endure to this day. The most common destinations are South Africa and its mines; the coastal cities of West Africa; and states that are gradually strengthening their economies (e.g., Libya). Intercontinental migrants, on the other hand, reach mainly Western Europe and North America. In the 1980s, migratory flows were mainly directed from sub-Saharan Africa to the north of the continent; now there is a steady increase in internal movement and to Europe. Africa is the region of the world where brain drain is most prevalent: every year 10% of health professionals emigrate, jeopardizing their states' ability to manage health emergencies. In addition, wars continue to greatly affect migration flows, forcing millions of people to leave their place of origin (e.g., Rwanda or Sudan). INTERNAL PROFUGES= People forced to leave their places of origin to migrate to another region of the same country Asia Asia is the continent with the highest percentage of migrants in the world (25 percent). Most move between countries on the same continent. In the 1970s, the most popular destinations were Middle Eastern countries and Israel because of their great economic growth. An important aspect of Asian migration is the movement of refugees, who are present in greater numbers than the rest of the world, particularly from Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq. In East and South Asia, most migration occurs within the borders of the same country, particularly from rural areas to large cities, as in China (about 130 million internal migrants). The Asian countries with the largest number of citizens living abroad are China, India, the Philippines and Pakistan. In parts of Asia, many women and children (2 to 4 million) are forced to migrate because of human trafficking for prostitution or child exploitation. They are mostly directed to Japan, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia. The main cause of Asian migration is labor, which thus generates major labor flows. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 3.5.5 Transnationalism TRANSNATIONALISM= Process by which migrants build networks of interactions that bind together the country of origin and the country of settlement. EMIGRANTS' REMITTALS= the amounts of money migrants send back home. Among the fundamental aspects of a migrant's identity is transnationalism, the development of which is favored by globalization and the increasing interconnectedness between places. It shows that migration involves a system of circulation in which migratory flows are not unidirectional, but always set in motion counter-flows in the opposite direction. The clearest evidence of these counter-flows are migrants' remittances, which are sent back to their countries of origin. Chapter 4 - LANGUAGES, RACES, ETHNICES AND RELIGIONS. 4.1 Languages in the world LANGUAGE= system of communication based on symbols to which shared meanings are attributed A geography of languages corresponds to a geography of cultures: the simplest and most effective indicator for dividing the world into cultural areas is that of languages. They are in fact distributed across the planet by homogeneous regions, characterized by the fact that in each of them the population communicates in a particular language. LANGUAGE= idiom that has imposed itself over others in a larger or smaller area for literary, social or political reasons. When several people speak the same language, a process of interaction is triggered based on the common association of meanings to the symbols represented by the words. Each language has within it geographical and social variants called dialects. DIALECT= a language variety (or idiom) used among themselves by inhabitants originating in a restricted geographical area, in addition to the official language. Some dialects are defined as such only because they are spoken in restricted areas, while they have characteristics that could cause them to be considered true languages. Conversely, some languages are very similar to each other, but are considered different only because the states to which they belong are different (Serbian and Croatian). MINORITARIAN LANGUAGE= A language traditionally used in the territory of an official language by a group of people less numerous than the rest of the population. Socio-cultural factors can also influence the development of a language (e.g.new words that did not exist before -> "fork" in Japanese) NATURAL LANGUAGE= language that arose and evolved throughout the history of human communities ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE= A language intentionally invented by humans to facilitate communication between speakers of different languages. Some artificial languages were devised with the aim of creating a universal language, as in the case of Esperanto. However, it has not spread because languages cannot be easily separated from cultures. 4.1.2 The spread of languages There are about 6,900 different languages in the world. The 9 most widely spoken languages in the world are: Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, and Japanese. The languages spoken by a small number of people, however, are many. 4.1.3 Language families It is impossible to reconstruct the historical origins of language; it is estimated that some sort of language existed as early as 30,000 years ago. Knowledge of a language and its evolution allows us to know more about past societies, the relationships they had with each other, and the paths of human evolution. This is why scholars have identified a number of LINGUISTIC FAMILIES= set of languages that share a common origin. The six main ones include most of the world's speakers; they are: Indo-European; Sino-Tibetan; Afro-Asiatic; Niger-Kordofanian; Austronesian; and Trans-New Guinea. In addition, almost half of the Earth's inhabitants speak a language that belongs to the Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) Indo-European family, which originated around 5000 B.C. probably in Anatolia with Proto-Indo-European, which then underwent such evolutions that it developed several language groups, including the Romance languages (the + widespread). Neither the historical nor the geographical origins of the different language families, especially those on the American continent, where the extermination of native peoples by European ones has made it difficult to construct their historical evolution, are known precisely. Scholars believe that the key moment for language transformation and distribution around the world was the development of agriculture and the migrations of the peoples who practiced it. 4.1.3 Language minorities Language minorities are communities historically settled in a territory, which speak a minority language in addition to the country's official language. There are 60 minority languages in Europe in addition to the 27 official ones, and they are spoken by 10 percent of the population. (e.g., Catalan.) European language minorities are protected by the EU through their promotion and the recognition of fundamental rights, such as teaching in schools. 4.2 The spread of languages and globalization The spread of languages is influenced by several factors: political forces, religious (e.g., Muslims learning Arabic), economic (e.g., tourism and foreign business). 4.2.1 Linguistic dominance. LINGUISTIC DOMINANCE= A situation in which one language is found to be more influential and important than another. It derives primarily from the economic and political power of this language. There are a large number of stateless languages, considered minority languages, which are not used in official acts and are rarely taught in schools, despite the fact that they are spoken daily by the peoples to which they belong. -> language gap The official language chosen by a state, on the other hand, is used for political, legal and administrative matters. Large international economic or political institutions also choose one or more official languages, thereby influencing their linguistic spread and dominance. Languages are constantly evolving and often adopt language borrowings from other languages. LINGUISTIC LOAN= A word that becomes part of the vocabulary of one language, even though it comes from a different language. Today the world is experiencing the highest rate of language extinction in its history. The regions with the greatest number of endangered languages are the Americas, East Siberia, and Australia, where the endangered languages are those spoken by natives. The extinction of languages is one of the factors influencing the distribution and mixing of idioms in the world. LANGUAGE IN DANGER= language that is no longer taught to children by their parents or used in everyday family conversations. DEAD LANGUAGE= a language with no more living speakers. They are also called "dead languages." LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY INDEX= An index expressing the probability that two individuals residing in the same state, chosen at random, share the same native language. This is the method geographers and linguists use to determine the linguistic diversity of a region. It relates the population size of a country to the number of languages that are spoken within it. Values of the index range from 0 to 1. 0-> no linguistic diversity; 1-> high linguistic diversity. It does not, however, directly express the number of languages spoken in a country, otherwise larger countries would report a higher figure! Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 4.3 Dialects and place names 4.3.1 Italian dialects Linguistic geography includes a branch called dialect geography, which studies the spatial distribution of the use of different dialects. During the unification of Italy, dialect was still widely spoken in Italy, while Italian was spoken only by educated people. With compulsory education, military conscription, radio and then TV, knowledge of Italian spread everywhere. Italian is now the official language in Italy, San Marino, Switzerland and Vatican City. 44% of Italians speak Italian exclusively; 51% alternate it with a dialect; 5% speak exclusively in dialect or are members of language minorities (Friulian, Ladin, German, Slovenian, Occitan, French, Franco-Provençal, Albanian, Greek, Sardinian, Catalan and Croatian). The emergence of a dominant standard language in Italy tends to destroy the country's linguistic variety. Most Italian dialects are derived from Latin, which then over time hybridized with the languages of the peoples who inhabited the peninsula. Dialects in Italy are very numerous and are divided into 6 groups: 1. Gallo-Italic Po Valley Italy north 2. Veneto of the Apennines 3. Toscano-Corso 4. Marchigiano-Umbro-Romanesque 5. Abruzzese-molisano-pugliese-campano-lucano Peninsular Italy 6. Siculo-Southern Calabrian-Salentine Alongside them, characteristic idioms such as Ladino, and foreign languages (e.g., German and Slovenian) are spoken in certain areas. 4.3.2 Standard Idioms and Languages When more than one idiom is spoken in the same country, one of them may be recognized as the country's standard language (e.g., simplified Chinese, standard British English, literary Tuscan dialect in Italy). This choice reflects the linguistic dominance of a certain way of speaking, or the fact that those using the language in that way are the upper classes. The knowledge that a certain high standard dialect has been selected leads many to mistakenly think that its use represents the only correct way of expressing oneself in a language, spreading negative stereotypes against non- standard dialects. 4.3.3 Toponyms TOPONIMO= name of a place Geographers study place names for the information they can provide about the history and politics of that place, as the choice of place names clearly expresses a group's sense of belonging to it (e.g. Rhodesia -> Zambia and Zimbabwe; Central African Republic -> Ubangi Shari; Burkina Faso -> Upper Volta Republic; in Italy names during fascism e.g. Courmayeur -> Cormaiore). Place names can also provide important information about past land-use practices or environmental changes that have occurred in a place over time (e.g. Selva di Valgardena -> ancient presence of forests; Monte Fatucchio -> ancient presence of beech trees) but also to document historical-political events (e.g. names in Europe of Roman origin to trace the boundaries of the empire: Orléans derives from Aurelianum, Berlin from Berolinum, etc.). 4.4 Race and racism 4.4.1 What is race? RACE=human group identified on the basis of somatic memberships that are not usually correlated with relevant genetic differences. The concept of race derives from the scientifically unfounded but historically widespread idea that one or more somatic traits can be used to divide human beings into distinctive and exclusive categories. It originated in the 18th century with the claims of Swedish naturalist Charles Linnaeus, who was the first to identify four degree groups of peoples, which he called "varieties": African, Native American, Asian and European. This was a true and Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) own method of classification based solely on the outward trait of skin color. Later other theories spread that saw different numbers of races among them. This shows how the division into races is totally arbitrary. Geography, in fact, tells us that the physical traits of human beings tend to vary gradually in space, creating somatic boundaries that are not clear-cut, but transition zones; moreover, the appearance characteristics of human beings never have the same spatial distribution. Biology, in addition scientifically demonstrates how genetic variability, that is, the variability on which the concept of race should be based, is minimal. According to the most recent studies, the genetic variety among the indigenous peoples of the five continents is 5 percent, while the genetic difference found within each of these "races" is much greater. In scientific debate today, race is regarded as a social construction. 4.4.2 How did racism develop? RACISM= Intolerance of people considered genetically inferior. IDEOLOGY= system of ideas and values that justifies the opinions, practices and orientations of a group. Racism leads to exclusion and discrimination against certain categories of people, which often results in real psychological and physical abuse and can escalate to genocide. Racism has often taken on the characteristics of an ideology, promoted throughout history by numerous movements. Historical developments in the period of colonization of the Americas, between the 16th and 17th centuries, contributed significantly to the development of racism. In the period of European imperialism, racist ideologies spread widely, being exploited to justify European domination and colonization and to reinforce European dominance over the rest of the world (idea of "white race" as a standard for measuring other peoples). Acts of racial segregation of inhabitants occurred in the colonies, such as the phenomenon of APARTHEID (= policy of institutional and spatial discrimination on the basis of racial or ethnic traits), and slavery that is perpetuated today through human trafficking. 4.5 What is ethnicity? 4.5.1 Definition and characteristics of ethnicity ETHNICITY = Personal and behavioral component of an individual's identity, based on a sense of social belonging to a group that is differentiated from others by its cultural characteristics. ≠ nationality (affiliation of a person with a state)!!! ETHNIC GROUP or ETHNIA=an aggregate of people who share a collective cultural identity, which may derive from common ancestry, history, language or religion, based on which they consciously develop a sense of group membership. It is also used as a synonym for local culture. Ethnicity is composed of multiple facets, consisting of internal and personal elements (each person's sense of identity) and external and behavioral factors (identity practices e.g. language, religion, traditional customs). A person's ethnic identity also depends on how his or her overall individual identity has been formed over time, which may lead him or her to embrace or reject the feeling of belonging to different ethnic groups. In particular, a person's identity is influenced by the attribution processes through which people attribute a certain quality or identity to others or themselves. Ethnicity is subjective, flexible and contingent, depending on the circumstances and people that affect our lives. Globalization may disrupt those inherited traditions that best define a sense of ethnic identity, but individuals do not give up on them: in reaction to homogenizing trends they rediscover and reactivate old traditions, or sometimes resort to inventing tradition. A population can be called an "indigenous population" if it meets the following requirements: 1. The possession of an ancestral link to pre-colonial societies; 2. Recognizing themselves as an indigenous people and being recognized as such by other peoples; 3. Not holding a position of dominance (economic, political or numerical) in society. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) Ethnicity is also a subjective social construction, with no rigid categorization. Yet many governments insist on trying to identify and quantify different ethnic or racial groups within their borders. 4.5.2 Ethnicities, cultures, civilizations CIVILIZATION = Ethnicity or culture spread over a wide geographical area, exhibiting forms of technical and social organization considered to be evolved according to the prevailing criteria of judgment in the Western world The concept of ethnicity is often used as a synonym for "culture," when characteristics shared by several people are regarded as peculiar to an ethnic group. The relationship between the concept of ethnicity and civilization, on the other hand, is more complex: originally, the term civilization was attributed only to European societies as opposed to others, which were considered "barbaric." Today, some speak of civilization in the presence of cultures characterized by evolved forms of technical organization, spread over a wide geographical area. However, others reject the term because it is accused of being based on prejudices typical of Western societies. 4.6 Ethnicity in the landscape Ethnic geography studies the migration and spatial distribution of ethnic groups, interaction, ethnic networks, and the signs of ethnicity in the landscape that contribute to the formation of "ethnic landscapes" (religious buildings, gathering centers, slogans, radio, TV, Internet sites). 4.6.1 Ethnic interactions Patterns of ethnic interaction: - ASSIMILATION -> melting pot (U.S.), integration (France) -> loss of traits of source community - MULTICULTURALISM (PLURALISM) -> (UK) -> recognition traits of the source community - HETEROLOCALISM -> maintaining characterizing traits even if you are far from your community in the city (e.g., Vietnamese scattered all over Washington) 4.6.2 Ethnic settlements There are different types of ethnic settlements: - ETHNIC ISLANDS -> mostly rural areas; size: from that of a municipality to that of several states together - ETHNIC QUARTERS-> urban areas; size: variable, from a few blocks to entire city districts; predominant presence of one ethnic group (e.g., Chinatown) - GHETTO-> neighborhoods in which immigrants of the same ethnic group, often poor and discriminated against on racial grounds, are concentrated. The ghetto also has as its purpose the aggregation of common interests, but over time it becomes a form of forced segregation: when members of a certain highly discriminated ethnic group become numerous in a neighborhood, the rest of the population moves elsewhere, thus generating neglect and degradation. At the opposite pole of ghettos, a form of voluntary social segregation is thus formed consisting of residential neighborhoods for the wealthy. A widespread phenomenon in countries with high social inequality (USA->gated community, Brazil, Argentina). LOCALIZATION QUOTIENT -> is used to compare the weight of an ethnic group in an area with that of the same ethnic group in the whole area. If the quotient is 1 -> parity between area and nation; if it is >1 -> + area - nation; if it is - area + country 4.6.3 "Ethnic conflicts" and environmental justice Ethnic conflicts arise not only reductively because of hatred between ethnic groups, but because of multiple factors, such as exclusion from the political system of part of the population; disputes related to control of territory or access to resources; lack of equity in the distribution of potentially dangerous sites and infrastructure. E.g. crisis in Darfur, breakup of former Yugoslavia, unrest in Sri Lanka. The environmental justice movement was born in the 1980s to counter the lack of involvement of some sections of society regarding the location of toxic waste, industrial hazards and other hazardous land uses. On a global scale, the main problem concerns the disposal of toxic waste. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) 4.7 World religions Religions are systems of ideas, rules, and practices that respond to people's need to make sense of the world and their role in it, usually through devotion to one or more divine entities. Religions often offer explanations to the origin of the monod, can influence the sense of belonging to places, can have important implications for codes of behavior, morals and ethics, and offer absolute, nonnegotiable values to the faithful. A religion can be: MONOTEISTIC=religion that worships only one god or deity POLITEISTIC=religion that worships more than one deity ANIMIST= religious faith that believes in the presence of deities and spiritual entities and the manifestations of nature SYNCRETIC (syncretism) = mixture of religious beliefs and practices due to prolonged contact between different faiths in a certain area (e.g., African tradition and Catholicism: Santeria in Cuba, Candomblè in Brazil) [ATHEISM= belief in the absence of any form of deity] A further division is that between universal and ethnic religions. RITUAL= behavior, repeated regularly, to which people attach symbolic meaning UNIVERSAL RELIGION= religious system with worldwide reach, accepting anyone as a potential believer and often actively working to acquire new converts. Characterized by a founder, who is a spiritual reference for the faithful. (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism) ETHNIC RELIGION= a religious system to which, with few exceptions, only members of a certain ethnic or cultural group belong. Characterized by membership by birth, it is the oldest type of religion. (e.g., Judaism, Hinduism, Shintoism) Civil religions -> ideas, symbols and rituals affect political culture Abrahamic religions -> place great importance on Abraham (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) Vedic religions -> refer to the Vedas, the oldest Indian sacred texts (Hinduism and Buddhism) Sikhism belongs to neither group. Judaism 13 million Jews worldwide (US and Israel). Monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham as its prophet. Sacred texts: Old Testament and Torah, which describes the most important episodes of Jewish tradition, such as the Exodus and the agreement between God and Abraham. Christianity most widespread religion in the world with 2.3 billion believers. Sacred texts: Old Testament, the 4 Gospels, Acts of the Apostles. Christianity divided into: Roman Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Protestantism. Islam second most widespread religion in the world. Extended from North Africa, through the Middle East to South Asia. Founder: Muhammad, who allegedly received several revelations from Allah (God). Sacred text: Quran, which contains the word of God revealed to Muhammad. Islamists divided between Sunnis (+ numerous) and Shiites. Hinduism 900 million adherents. + largest ethnic religion in the world, widespread mainly in India and South Asia. Has no founders and no central authority. Sacred texts: Vedas. Cyclic view of existence, belief in immortal soul and reincarnation, karma and attainment of moksha (liberation from cycle of births and deaths). Buddhism found in East and Southeast Asia, along with Confucianism. Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, Indian prince who was attained by enlightenment and became the Buddha. Belief in reincarnation to which we are all obligated and from which we must escape by attaining nirvana. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) Sikhism 23 million adherents. Smallest universal religion in the world. Sikh=disciple, follower of guru=master. North India. Influences from both Islam and Hinduism: belief in one creator god but also in importance of karma. 4.8 Religion, society and modernization 4.8.1 The sacred places Sacred place -> place to which special religious significance is attributed and which, because of this, deserves, in the eyes of the faithful, devotion and respect. Pilgrimage -> journey made by a believer to a holy place for religious reasons. (e.g. haji of Muslims). Main and secondary destinations based on degree of sacredness attributed and no. of pilgrims. Religion provides a fundamental basis for the identity of an individual or community (e.g. Islam: umma, dar al Islam, mosque, ramadan, veil). The relationship between religious communities and territory manifests itself in various forms, for example in the conception of "holy lands," lands identified by the faithful as homelands in which to settle, often in diasporic communities (e.g., Mormons -> Salt Lake City, "Zion"; Jews-> Israel, "the Promised Land"). 4.8.2 Tradition and change All religions are forced to confront social changes. Modernism-> intellectual current that encourages scientific thinking, dissemination of knowledge and belief in progress. Had (and still has on some issues such as contraception or female clergy) disagreements with the Catholic Church. Caste system -> contrasts with Hinduism: although it has been abolished by Indian law today, the Veda preaches the existence of 4 social classes (varna) classified according to purity. Religious fundamentalism -> mode of expression of resistance to change. It requires in various forms that a person's faith and religious principles permeate every aspect of his or her private and public life (e.g., Sharia law enforced in a literal and rigid manner). Although one hears of fundamentalism mostly in incidents of violence, in reality most fundamentalist movements do not carry out violence and its presence is extensive in most religions. In recent years, however, some groups that embrace the ideology of Islamic traditionalism (resistance to Westernization) have begun to practice acts of violence and terrorism. Chapter 5 - CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY AND GLOBALIZATION. 5.1 Globalization today Globalization is the set of processes that contribute to increased interconnectedness and interdependence among people, places and organizations around the world. Some of its manifestations can be found in the geography of food and clothing. Today's globalization is the result of the spread of capitalism and international trade and finance, but the trend toward spatial interconnectedness has been going on for a long time, as far back as the 15th century. Contemporary globalization was born in the 1960s and has spread very rapidly since especially the 1980s and 1990s. The extra element compared to the past is the high level of interdependence between different parts of the world, related to space-time compression. Contemporary globalization involves a horizontal expansion (from place to place), through rapid flows of goods, people and ideas that connect all places on Earth, and a vertical expansion (from local actors to large global organizations), which institutionalizes and strengthens these links. Globalization is both cause and effect of spatial interaction. It has been fostered by five factors: Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected])  1- The search for markets on a global scale resulting from the establishment of capitalism. This includes finding places where raw materials cost less and profits are higher; 2- The most effective technological innovations, especially in transportation and telecommunications; 3- Reduced cost and time of transportation and communication; 4- An increase in financial capital flows, as a result of trade, international investment; 5- The spread of policies and laws that favored the previous 4 factors. CAPITALISM= an economic and social system in which productive capital is usually held by private individuals (individuals or corporations), who use it to make profits from the sale of goods and services produced by employees , and then reinvest them in productive or financial activities in order to increase the capital itself. CAPITAL= all the means of production which, combined with wage labor, enable the production of goods and services. It includes money (financial capital), real estate, machinery, production equipment, etc. One of the policy changes associated with the rise of globalization is the creation of the WTO (1995), with the aim of establishing and implementing regulation in a liberalist sense of international trade. Among the main aspects of globalization are the increased importance of the role of multinational firms in the world economy and an increase in capital flows moving around the world. MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES= those firms that derive at least a quarter of their revenues from operations that take place in a country other than that of their headquarters. To finance their activities, multinational corporations put in place FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI), transferring money to the countries in which they have interests. FDI benefits: increase capital flows, promote employment and innovation in a country. Disadvantages: competition from local companies limited because they do not have the same financial resources; since the only one making a profit is the multinational, countries are also not guaranteed to receive knowledge and technology transfers or maintain stable employment. 5.2 The cultural impacts of globalization MASS CULTURE= The practices, attitudes and preferences shared by a large number of people and considered part of the dominant pattern. It is the phenomenon that relates to popular products, such as music, video games, TV programs, clothing, and entertainment. It is influenced by mass media, TV, and the Internet, which justifies precisely its continuous and rapid change. A particularly important role in the spatial spread of globalization is played by INVERSE GERARCHIC DIFFUSION, which acts from the bottom up in a bottom-up pattern. Regarding the cultural effects of globalization, they follow a pattern based on 3 theories: homogenization, polarization, glocalization. HOMOGENEIZATION -> homogenization theory states that globalization tends to converge tastes, beliefs and cultural practices, making them similar all over the world. The products and services of some American companies have now achieved global visibility; the global spread of fast food chains, restaurants, hotels or large supermarkets represent this thesis. One of the consequences of homogenization is the transformation of places into non-places: similar local spaces all over the world with no history or specific identity, where the people who frequent them have no relationship with each other as they do in a village or urban neighborhood. Another consequence sees more economically advanced countries extremely influencing the economy (consumerism) and culture (consumerism, freedom and individualism) in the rest of the world, coming into conflict with those of local cultures, threatening to erase them. POLARIZATION -> a phenomenon whereby all relations between centers report to a central node, on which the others are totally dependent. According to this theory, globalization, precisely because it tends to create a single global mass culture, would contribute, in reaction, to increasing the sense of identity of different societies and cultures, generating divisions and conflicts and thus contributing to unrest and instability, fomenting the most separatist and fundamentalist forces. Supporting this thesis would be the wars in the Balkans, the Caucasus and Africa that erupted precisely during the rise of globalization, or the spread of terrorism thanks to the Internet. Document shared on www.docsity.com Downloaded by: Marty2987 ([email protected]) According to many scholars, theories of homogenization and polarization would tend to oversimplify the process of globalization: in fact, we are still far from a complete homogenization of cultures or landscapes, thanks in part to the tendency of human creativity to resist homogenization. Moreover, globalization would be multi - directional (e.g. global spread of Jamaican reggae, Mexican restaurants in Asia, Indian or African stores in Europe), thus not solely and exclusively influenced by the West. 5.3 Global networks and local systems: glocalization GLOCALIZATION-> The process whereby global and local actors interact, influencing each other. This thesis ties in with the phenomenon of neolocalism, that is, the renewed interest in supporting and promoting the specificities of each place stimulated by globalization. To understand what glocalization is about, we need to take into account the relationship between