Development Across the Life Span Midterm Chs..pdf

2 PART 1 Beginnings LO 1.14 Identify different types of correlational LO 1.17 Compare longitudinal research, cross- LO 1.15 Explain the main features of an experiment. LO 1.18 Describe ethical issues that affect psycho- studies and their relationship to cause and effect. sectional research, and sequential research. logical research. LO 1.16 Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research. Chapter Overview An Orientation to Lifespan Development The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development Defining Lifespan Development Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development Influences on Development Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question Research Methods Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary Approaches The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings Measuring Developmental Change Correlational Studies Ethics and Research Prologue: Pandemic Henry Padilla was born on April 30 during the first year of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Three weeks prior, his mother, Estella had suffered a mild case of COVID-19 and was terrified that her baby would be affected. But in every way it was a routine delivery, and Henry, who weighed 7 pounds, 6 ounces, was a healthy newborn. * * * On the same day in April that Henry was born, Mia Signorelli, 8 years old, was being homeschooled in her apartment in Brooklyn, New York. Her school had already been closed for weeks during the pandemic, and she communicated with her third grade teacher online. Although the teacher provided lesson plans, her parents struggled to help her and felt totally inadequate as instructors. As for Mia, although she missed her friends and running through the park across from her apartment, she was glad school was closed. * * * Ana Parnosky and Lilibeth Stein, 42-year-old parents of Alex Parnosky-Stein, had begun to feel like prison wardens. Trying to keep Alex safe from the ravages of the pandemic, they never let him leave the confines of their suburban home in Las Vegas. But for Alex, a high school junior, being stuck at home felt like torture. He constantly fought with his parents, and he missed going out with his buddies and being with his girlfriend. If he hadn’t had his cell phone to stay in touch with his friends, he felt he’d go nuts. Looking Ahead Each of these people was profoundly affected in unique ways by the COVID-19 pandemic. Still, their development, from infancy onward, has followed predictable patterns. Although the specifics of our own development vary—some of us encounter economic for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email Chapter 1 [email protected] An Introduction to Lifespan Development 3 deprivation or live in war-torn territories; others contend with family issues like divorce and stepparents—the broad strokes of the development that is set in motion the moment we are conceived are remarkably similar for all of us. Like LeBron James, Jeff Bezos, and Queen Elizabeth II of England, each and every one of us has traversed the territory known as lifespan development. Issues ranging from cloning and the consequences of poverty on development to the effects of culture and race raise significant developmental concerns. Underlying these are even more fundamental issues. How do people develop physically over the course of their lives? How does their understanding of the world grow and change as they age? And how do their personalities and their social world develop as they move from birth through the end of their lives? Each of these questions, and many others we’ll encounter throughout this book, are central to the field of lifespan development. As a field, lifespan development encompasses not only a broad span of time—from before birth to death—but also a wide range of areas of development. Consider, for example, the range of interests that different specialists in lifespan development focus on when considering the individuals we met in the prologue: Although their interests take many forms, these specialists in lifespan development share one concern: understanding the growth and change that occur during the course of life. Taking different approaches, developmentalists study how both the biological inheritance from our parents and the environment in which we live jointly affect our behavior. Some developmentalists focus on explaining how our genetic background can determine not only how we look but also how we behave and relate to others in a consistent manner—that is, matters of personality. They explore ways to identify how much of our potential as human beings is provided—or limited—by heredity. Other lifespan development specialists look to the environment, exploring ways in which our lives are shaped by the world that we encounter. They investigate the extent to which we are shaped by our early environments and how our current circumstances influence our behavior in both subtle and obvious ways. Whether they focus on heredity or environment, all developmental specialists acknowledge that neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range of human development and change. Instead, our understanding of people’s development requires that we look at the interaction of heredity and environment, attempting to grasp how in the end, both contribute to human behavior. In this chapter, we orient ourselves to the field of lifespan development. We begin with a discussion of the scope of the discipline, illustrating the wide array of topics it covers and the full range of ages, from conception to death, that it examines. We also survey the key issues and controversies of the field and consider the broad perspectives that developmentalists take. Finally, we discuss the ways Many children struggled with online learning at the height of the developmentalists use research to ask and answer questions. COVID-19 pandemic. Andrew Angelov/Shutterstock Specialists in lifespan development who study physical growth and development might examine how the biological endowment from Henry’s mother affects his later behavior and whether Henry’s growth was affected by his mother’s illness before he was born. Lifespan development specialists who investigate the ways thinking changes over the course of the lifespan might examine how Mia’s understanding of the nature of the pandemic became more sophisticated as she grew older and how the homeschooling she received affected her academic development over the remainder of her years in school. Lifespan development experts who specialize in the social and personality development might look at the ways that Alex’s relationships with his parents and friends would change as a result of the pandemic quarantine that he endured. 4 PART 1 Beginnings An Orientation to Lifespan Development Have you ever wondered how it is possible that an infant tightly grips your finger with tiny, perfectly formed hands? Or marveled at the way an adolescent can make involved decisions about whom to invite to a party? Or wondered what it is that makes a grandfather at 80 so similar to the father he was when he was 40? If you’ve ever contemplated such things, you are asking the kinds of questions that scientists in the field of lifespan development pose. In this section, we’ll examine how the field of lifespan development is defined, the scope of the field, and some basic influences on human development. Defining Lifespan Development LO 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. Lifespan development is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span. Although the definithe field of study that examines tion of the field seems straightforward, the simplicity is somewhat misleading. To underpatterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur stand what development is actually about, we need to look deeper into the various parts throughout the entire life span of the definition. In its study of growth, change, and stability, lifespan development takes a scientific approach and is situated within the broader field of developmental science. Developmental science is an interdisciplinary field that draws from biology, psychology, anthropology, sociology, education, and other related disciplines to address the issues of human development (Golinkoff et al., 2016; Ghavami et al., 2016; Wang, 2018). Like members of other scientific disciplines, researchers in lifespan development test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods. As we’ll see later in the chapter, they develop theories about development, and they use methodical, scientific techniques to validate the accuracy of their assumptions systematically. Lifespan development focuses on human development. Although there are developmentalists who study the course of development in nonhuman species, the vast majority examine growth and change in people. Some seek to understand universal principles of development, whereas others focus on how cultural, racial, and ethnic differences affect the course of development. Still others aim to understand the unique aspects of individuals, looking at the traits and characteristics that differentiate one person from another. Regardless of approach, however, all developmentalists view development as a continuing process throughout the life span. As developmental specialists focus on the ways people change and grow during their lives, they also consider stability in people’s lives. They ask in which areas, and in what periods, people show change and growth and when and how their behavior reveals consistency and continuity with prior behavior. Finally, developmentalists assume that the process of development persists throughout every part of people’s lives, beginning with the moment of conception and continuing until death. Developmental specialists assume that in some ways people continue to grow and change right up to the end of their lives, whereas in other respects, their behavior remains stable. At the same time, developmentalists believe that no particular, single period of life governs all development. Instead, they believe that How people grow and change over the course of their lives is the focus of every period of life contains the potential for both lifespan development. Shutterstock lifespan development for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email Chapter 1 [email protected] An Introduction to Lifespan Development 5 growth and decline in abilities and that individuals maintain the capacity for substantial growth and change throughout their lives. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development LO 1.2 Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover. Clearly, the definition of lifespan development is broad, and the scope of the field is extensive. Consequently, lifespan development specialists cover quite diverse areas, and a typical developmentalist will choose to specialize in both a topical area and an age range. physical development development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep cognitive development development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior personality development development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span social development the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life AGE RANGES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. In addition to choosing to specialize in a particular topical area, developmentalists also typically look at a particular age range. The life span is usually divided into broad age ranges: the prenatal period (the period from conception to birth), infancy and toddlerhood (birth to age 3), the preschool period (ages 3 to 6), middle childhood (ages 6 to 12), adolescence (ages 12 to 20), young adulthood (ages 20 to 40), middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65), and late adulthood (age 65 to death). It’s important to keep in mind that these broad periods—which are largely accepted by lifespan developmentalists—are social constructions. A social construction is a shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time. Consequently, the age ranges within a period—and even the periods themselves—are in many ways arbitrary and are often culturally derived. For example, later in the book we’ll discuss how the concept of childhood as a separate period did not even exist during the 17th century; at that time, children and adults were seen as little different from one another except in terms of size. Furthermore, although some periods have a clear-cut boundary (infancy begins with birth, the preschool period ends with entry into elementary school, and adolescence starts with sexual maturity), others This wedding of two children in Sudan is an example don’t. of how cultural factors can play a significant role in For instance, consider the period of young adulthood, which at least in determining the age when a particular event is likely Western cultures is typically assumed to begin at age 20. That age, however, to occur. Mohamed Khidir/Xinhua/Alamy Stock Photo TOPICAL AREAS IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT. Some developmentalists focus on physical development, examining the ways in which the body’s makeup—the brain, nervous system, muscles, senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep—help determine behavior. For example, one specialist in physical development might examine the effects of malnutrition on the pace of growth in children, and another might look at how athletes’ physical performance declines during adulthood (Fell & Williams, 2008; Muiños & Ballesteros, 2014). Other developmental specialists examine cognitive development, seeking to understand how growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior. Cognitive developmentalists examine learning, memory, problem-solving skills, and intelligence. For example, specialists in cognitive development might want to see how problem-solving skills change over the course of life or whether cultural differences exist in the way people explain their academic successes and failures (Coates, 2016; MougrabiLarge & Zhou, 2020). Finally, some developmental specialists focus on personality and social development. Personality development is the study of stability and change in the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another over the life span. Social development is the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life. A developmentalist interested in personality development might ask whether there are stable, enduring personality traits throughout the life span, whereas a specialist in social development might examine the effects of racism or poverty or divorce on development (Manning et al., 2017; Atherton et al., 2020). These four major topic areas—physical, cognitive, social, and personality development—are summarized in Table 1-1. 6 PART 1 Beginnings Table 1-1 Approaches to Lifespan Development Defining Characteristics Examples of Questions Researchers Ask* Physical development Emphasizes how the brain, nervous system, muscles, sensory capabilities, and needs for food, drink, and sleep affect behavior What determines the sex of a child? (2) What are the long-term results of premature birth? (3) What are the benefits of breast milk? (4) What are the consequences of early or late sexual maturation? (11) What leads to obesity in adulthood? (13) How do adults cope with stress? (15) What are the outward and internal signs of aging? (17) How do we define death? (19) Cognitive development Emphasizes intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence What are the earliest memories that can be recalled from infancy? (5) What are the intellectual consequences of watching television? (7) Do spatial reasoning skills relate to music practice? (7) Are there benefits to bilingualism? (9) How does an adolescent’s egocentrism affect their view of the world? (11) Are there ethnic and racial differences in intelligence? (9) How does creativity relate to intelligence? (13) Does intelligence decline in late adulthood? (17) Personality and social development Emphasizes enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and how interactions with others and social relationships grow and change over the life span Do newborns respond differently to their caregivers than to others? (3) What is the best strategy for disciplining children? (8) When does a sense of gender identity develop, and how do sex and gender provide a context for development? (8) How can we promote cross-race friendships? (10) What are the causes of adolescent suicide? (12) How do we choose a romantic partner? (14) Do the effects of parental divorce last into old age? (18) Do people withdraw from others in late adulthood? (18) What are the emotions involved in confronting death? (19) AJ_Watt/E+/Getty Images cozyta/Shutterstock Shutterstock Topical Area *Numbers in parentheses indicate in which chapter the question is addressed. is notable only because it marks the end of the teenage period. In fact, for many people, such as those enrolled in higher education, the age change from 19 to 20 has little special significance, coming as it does in the middle of the college years. For them, more substantial changes may occur when they leave college and enter the workforce, which is more likely to happen around age 22. Furthermore, in some non-Western cultures, adulthood may be considered to start much earlier, when children whose educational opportunities are limited begin full-time work. In fact, some developmentalists have proposed entirely new developmental periods. For instance, psychologist Jeffrey Arnett argues that adolescence extends into emerging adulthood, a period beginning late in the teenage years and continuing into the mid-20s. During emerging adulthood, people are no longer adolescents, but they haven’t fully taken on the responsibilities of adulthood. Instead, they are still trying out different identities and engaging in self-focused exploration (Sumner et al., 2015; Arnett, 2016; Zorotovich & Johnson, 2019). In short, there are substantial individual differences in the timing of events in people’s lives. In part, this is a biological fact of life: People mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points. However, environmental factors also play a significant role in determining the age at which a particular event is likely to occur. For example, the typical age of marriage varies substantially from one culture to another, depending in part on the functions that marriage plays in a given culture. It is important to keep in mind, then, that when developmental specialists discuss age ranges, they are talking about averages—the times when people, on average, reach particular milestones. Some people will reach the milestone earlier, some later, and many will reach it around the time of the average. Such variation becomes noteworthy only when children show substantial deviation from the average. For example, parents whose child begins to speak at a much later age than average might decide to have their child evaluated by a speech therapist. THE LINKS BETWEEN TOPICS AND AGES. Each of the broad topical areas of lifespan development—physical, cognitive, social, and personality development—plays a role throughout the life span. Consequently, some developmental experts focus on physical development during the prenatal period, and others during adolescence. Some might for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email Chapter 1 [email protected] An Introduction to Lifespan Development specialize in social development during the preschool years, whereas others look at social relationships late in adulthood. Still others might take a broader approach, looking at cognitive development through every period of life. In this course, we’ll take a comprehensive approach, proceeding chronologically from the prenatal period through late adulthood and death. Within each period, we’ll look at different topical areas: physical, cognitive, social, and personality development. Furthermore, we’ll also be considering the impact of culture on development, as we discuss next. Influences on Development LO 1.3 Describe some of the basic influences on human development. Bob, born in 1947, is a baby boomer; he was born soon after the end of World War II, when an enormous surge in the birth rate occurred as soldiers returned to the United States from overseas. He was an adolescent at the height of the civil rights movement and the beginning of protests against the Vietnam War. His mother, Leah, was born in 1922. She died at the age of 96, and she was part of the generation that passed its childhood and teenage years in the shadow of the Great Depression. Bob’s son, Jon, was born in 1975. Now middle-aged and established in a career and raising his own family, he is a member of what has been called Generation X. Jon’s younger sister, Sarah, who was born in 1982, is part of the next generation, which sociologists have called the Millennial Generation. She now is raising a preschooler of her own after finishing graduate school and starting her career. Having lived through the COVID-19 pandemic, she suspects that her children will be affected by it for the rest of their lives. These people are, in part, products of the social times in which they live. Each belongs to a particular cohort, a group of people born at around the same time in the same place. Such major social events as wars, economic upturns and depressions, famines, and pandemics (like COVID-19) work similar influences on members of a particular cohort (Twenge et al., 2015; Simons et al., 2021). Cohort effects provide an example of history-graded influences, which are biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment. For instance, people who lived in New York City during the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center experienced shared biological and environmental challenges due to the attack. Their development is going to be affected by this normative history-graded event (Kim et al., 2016; Liu & Lim, 2020). In contrast, age-graded influences are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised. For example, biological events such as puberty and menopause are universal events that occur at relatively the same time throughout all societies. Similarly, a sociocultural event such as entry into formal education can be considered an age-graded influence because it occurs in most cultures around age 6. From an Educator’s Perspective How would a student’s cohort membership affect their readiness for school? For example, what would be the benefits and drawbacks of growing up in a cohort in which cell phone use was routine, compared with previous cohorts in which cell phone use was less common? Development is also affected by sociocultural-graded influences, the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as race, ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership. Similarly, children raised in remote and isolated areas of the African outback will experience significantly different upbringings from those raised in New York City (Rose et al., 2003; Chen & Zhou, 2019). Finally, non-normative life events are specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people. For example, a child whose parents die in an automobile accident when they are 6 years old has experienced a significant non-normative life event. cohort a group of people born at around the same time in the same place 7 8 PART 1 Beginnings Developmental Diversity and Your Life How Culture, Ethnicity, and Race Influence Development In the United States, parents praise young children who ask a lot of questions for being “intelligent” and “inquisitive.” The Dutch consider such children “too dependent on others.” Italian parents judge inquisitiveness as a sign of social and emotional competence and not intelligence. Spanish parents praise character far more than intelligence, and Swedes value security and happiness above all. To complicate the study of diverse populations, the terms ethnic group, ethnicity, and race are often used inappropriately. Ethnic group and ethnicity relate to cultural background, nationality, religion, and language. Members of ethnic groups share a common cultural background and group history. Race originated as a biological concept and initially What are we to make of these diverse parental expectations? referred to classifications based on physical and structural Is one way of looking at children’s inquisitiveness right and characteristics of species. But such a definition has little the others wrong? Probably not, if we take into consideration validity in terms of humans, and research shows that it is not a the cultural contexts in which parents operate. In fact, different meaningful way to differentiate people. cultures and subcultures have their own views of appropriate Moreover, depending on how race is defined, various observers and inappropriate methods and interpretations of child-rearing, have claimed there are between 3 and 300 races. Many people are just as they have different developmental goals for children. fluid in how they see their own race and ethnic group membership, Specialists in child development must take into consideration broad cultural factors. For example, as we’ll discuss further in Chapter 8, children growing up in Asian as can be seen in Figure 1-1. Over time, 6 percent of U.S. Census respondents shift in terms of how they self-identify. Furthermore, an increasing number of people view societies tend to have a collectivistic orientation, focusing on themselves as multiracial: For example, the number of non- the interdependence among members of society. In contrast, Hispanic Americans who identify as multiracial increased by children in Western societies are more likely to have an 127 percent. In short, race and ethnic group today are generally individualistic orientation, in which they concentrate on the thought of as a social constructions, something defined by uniqueness of the individual. people and their beliefs (Liebler et al., 2017; Kung et al., 2018; Similarly, child developmentalists must also consider ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, and gender differences if they are to Mosley et al., 2020; Tavernise et al., 2021). In addition, there is little agreement about which names achieve an understanding of how people change and grow best reflect different races and ethnic groups. Should the throughout the life span. If these specialists succeed in doing term African American—which has geographical and cultural so, not only can they attain a better understanding of human implications—be preferred over Black, which focuses primarily development, but they may also be able to derive more precise on skin color? Is Native American preferable to Indian? Is applications for improving the human social condition. Hispanic more appropriate than Latino or LatinX? And how 2000 response 2010 response Hispanic SOR Hispanic SOR Hispanic White White Hispanic White Hispanic White & SOR White White & AIAN AIAN White & Black Black White & Asian Asian White & AIAN AIAN White & Black Black White & Asian Asian Figure 1-1 Shifting Race and Ethnicity Six percent of U.S. Census respondents shift in the way that they answer questions about their own race and ethnic group membership. The top 20 changes between the 2000 and 2010 census in selfidentification are shown here. The data support the idea that race and ethnicity are social constructions, defined largely by people and their beliefs. NOTE: SOR = Some other race; AIAN = American Indian and Alaska Native. Elbert Wang, 2020The Wall Street Journal, citing data from Liebler, Porter, et al., 2017. for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email Chapter 1 [email protected] An Introduction to Lifespan Development can researchers accurately categorize people with multiracial racism and the ways that it can be reduced as we’ll see in backgrounds? future chapters (Andoh, 2021; Osborne et al., 2021). 9 To fully understand development, then, we need to take development that are universal from ones that are culturally determined. In the years ahead, then, it is likely that lifespan development will move from a discipline that primarily focuses on North American and European development to one that encompasses development around the globe (Kloep et al., Morsa Images/DigitalVision/Getty Images that developmental researchers can distinguish principles of Slatan/Shutterstock differences among various ethnic, cultural, and racial groups IOFOTO/Canva Pty Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo account. In fact, it is only by looking for similarities and fizkes/Shutterstock the complex issues associated with human diversity into 2009; Jensen Arnett, 2017). Relatedly, lifespan development specialists have increasingly considered issues of diversity, inclusion, and equity. In part as a consequence of the killing of George Floyd by a Minneapolis police officer and the emergence of social movements such as Black Lives Matter, researchers have sought to better understand racism, prejudice against others based on their race. Racism may be considered in terms of an individual’s prejudice against others, but it also may be embodied in institutions such as schools and government. Researchers are studying both the devastating effects of The face of the United States is changing as the proportion of people from different backgrounds is increasing. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature— and Nurture—of Lifespan Development LO 1.4 Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development. Today, several key issues and questions dominate the field. Among the key issues (summarized in Table 1-2) are the nature of change, the importance of critical and sensitive periods, lifespan approaches versus more focused approaches, and the nature–nurture issue. Most developmentalists agree that taking an either-or position on the continuous– discontinuous issue is inappropriate. Although many types of developmental change are continuous, others are clearly discontinuous. Table 1-2 Key Issues in Lifespan Development Continuous Change Discontinuous Change Change is gradual. Achievements at one level build on previous levels. Underlying developmental processes remain the same over the life span. Change occurs in distinct steps or stages. Behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages. Critical Periods Sensitive Periods Certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development. Emphasized by early developmentalists. People are susceptible to certain environmental stimuli, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible. Current emphasis in lifespan development. Lifespan Approach Focus on Particular Periods Current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life; relatedness of different periods. Infancy and adolescence are emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods. Nature (Genetic Factors) Nurture (Environmental Factors) Emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities. Emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person’s development. 10 PART 1 Beginnings One of the primary issues challenging developmentalists is whether development proceeds in a continuous or discontinuous fashion. In continuous change, development is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. Continuous change is quantitative in nature; the basic underlying developmental processes that drive change remain the same over the course of the life span. Continuous change, then, produces changes that are a matter of degree and not of kind. Changes in height prior to adulthood, for example, are continuous. Similarly, as we’ll see later in the chapter, some theorists suggest that changes in people’s thinking capabilities are also continuous, showing gradual quantitative improvements rather than developing entirely new cognitive processing capabilities. In contrast, one can view development as being made up of primarily discontinuous change, occurring in distinct stages. Each stage or change brings about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at previous stages. Consider the example of cognitive development again. We’ll see later in the chapter that some cognitive developmentalists suggest that as we develop, our thinking changes in fundamental ways and that such development is not just a matter of quantitative change but of qualitative change. CONTINUOUS CHANGE VERSUS DISCONTINUOUS CHANGE. continuous change gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels discontinuous change development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages critical period a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally sensitive period a point in development when individuals are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences CRITICAL AND SENSITIVE PERIODS: GAUGING THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS. If a woman comes down with a case of rubella (German measles) in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, the consequences for the child she is carrying are likely to be devastating: They include the potential for blindness, deafness, and heart defects. However, if she comes down with the exact same strain of rubella in week 30 of pregnancy, damage to the child is unlikely. The differing outcomes of the disease in the two periods demonstrate the concept of critical periods. A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. Critical periods occur when the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli enable development to proceed normally or when exposure to certain stimuli results in abnormal development. For example, mothers who take drugs at particular times during pregnancy may cause permanent harm to their developing child (Nygaard et al., 2017; Vikram & Chindarkar, 2020; Golovin et al., 2021). Although early specialists in lifespan development placed great emphasis on the importance of critical periods, more recent thinking suggests that in many realms, individuals are more malleable than was first thought, particularly in the domain of personality and social development. For instance, rather than suffering permanent damage from a lack of certain kinds of early social experiences, there is increasing evidence that people can use later experiences to their benefit to help them overcome previous deficits. Consequently, developmentalists are now more likely to speak of sensitive periods rather than critical periods. In a sensitive period, individuals are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment. A sensitive period represents the optimal period for particular capacities to emerge, and individuals are particularly sensitive to environmental influences. It is important to understand the difference between the concepts of critical periods and sensitive periods. In critical periods, it is assumed that the absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent, irreversible consequences for the developing individual. In contrast, although the absence of particular environmental influences during a sensitive period may hinder development, it is possible for later experiences to overcome the previous deficits. In other words, the concept of sensitive periods recognizes the plasticity of developing humans (Piekarski et al., 2017; Byrne & Allen, 2019; Rosa-Salva et al., 2021). On which part of the life span should developmentalists focus their attention? For early developmentalists, the answers tended to be infancy and adolescence. Most attention was clearly concentrated on those two periods, largely to the exclusion of other parts of the life span. LIFESPAN APPROACHES VERSUS A FOCUS ON PARTICULAR PERIODS. for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development Today, the story is different. For several reasons, developmentalists now believe that the entire life span is important. One is the discovery that developmental growth and change continue during every part of life—as we’ll discuss throughout the chapters. Furthermore, an important part of every person’s environment is the presence of other people around them—the person’s social environment. To fully understand the social influences on people of a given age, we need to understand the people who are in large measure providing those influences. For instance, to understand development in infants, we need to unravel the effects of their parents’ ages on their social environments. A 15-year-old first-time mother will provide parental influences of a different sort from those provided by an experienced 37-year-old mother. Consequently, infant development is in part an outgrowth consequence of adult development. In addition, as lifespan developmentalist Paul Baltes points out, development across the life span involves both gains and losses. With age, certain capabilities become more refined and sophisticated, whereas others involve loss of skill and capacity. For example, vocabulary tends to grow throughout childhood, and this growth continues through most of adulthood. At the same time, certain physical abilities, like reaction time, improve until early and middle adulthood, when they begin to decline (Ghisletta et al., 2010; Cerino et al., 2021). People also shift in how they invest their resources (in terms of motivation, energy, and time) at different points during the life span. Early in life, more of one’s personal resources are devoted to activities involving growth, such as studying or learning new skills. As one grows older, more resources are devoted to dealing with losses people face during late adulthood, such as declines in mobility or visual and hearing acuity (Gershuny et al., 2021). One of the enduring questions of development involves how much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature and how much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised. This issue, which has deep philosophical and historical roots, has dominated a great deal of work in lifespan development (Wexler, 2006). In this context, nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. It encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information—a process known as maturation. These genetic, inherited influences are at work as we move from the one-cell organism that is created at the moment of conception to the billions of cells that make up a fully formed human. Nature influences whether our eyes are blue or brown, whether we have thick hair throughout life or eventually go bald, and how good we are at athletics. Nature allows our brains to develop in such a way that we can read the words in this chapter. In contrast, nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior. Some of these influences may be biological, such as the impact of a pregnant mother’s use of cocaine on her unborn child or the amount and kind of food available to children. Other environmental influences are more social, such as the ways parents discipline their children and the effects of peer pressure on an adolescent. Finally, some influences are a result of larger, societal-level factors, such as the socioeconomic circumstances in which people find themselves. THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF NATURE AND NURTURE ON DEVELOPMENT. If our traits and behavior were determined solely by either nature or nurture, there would probably be little debate regarding the issue. However, for most critical behaviors this is hardly the case. Take, for instance, one of the most controversial areas: intelligence. As we’ll consider in detail in Chapter 9, the question of whether intelligence is determined primarily by inherited, genetic factors—nature—or is shaped by environmental factors—nurture—has caused lively and often bitter arguments that have spilled out of the scientific arena and into the realm of politics and social policy. THE LATER ACTION OF NATURE AND NURTURE. maturation the predetermined unfolding of genetic information 11 12 PART 1 Beginnings Consider the implications of the issue: If the extent of one’s intelligence is primarily determined by heredity and consequently is largely fixed at birth, then efforts to improve intellectual performance later in life may be doomed to failure. In contrast, if intelligence is primarily a result of environmental factors, such as the amount and quality of schooling and stimulation to which one is exposed, then we would expect that an improvement in social conditions could bring about an increase in intelligence. The extent of social policy affected by ideas about the origins of intelligence illustrates the significance of issues that involve the nature–nurture question. As we address this question in relation to several topical areas throughout this book, we should keep in mind that developmentalists reject the notion that behavior is the result solely of either nature or nurture. Instead, the question is one of degree—and the specifics of that, too, are hotly debated. Furthermore, the interaction of genetic and environmental factors is complex, in part, because certain genetically determined traits have not only a direct influence on children’s behavior, but also an indirect influence in shaping children’s environments. For example, a child who is consistently cranky and who cries a great deal—a trait that may be produced by genetic factors—may influence their environment by making their parents so highly responsive to the insistent crying that whenever the child cries, the parents rush to comfort them. The parents’ responsivity to the child’s genetically determined behavior consequently becomes an environmental influence on the child’s subsequent development (Barnes & Boutwell, 2012; Barlow, 2019). Similarly, although our genetic background orients us toward particular behaviors, those behaviors will not necessarily occur in the absence of an appropriate environment. People with similar genetic backgrounds (such as identical twins) may behave in different ways, and people with highly dissimilar genetic backgrounds can behave quite similarly to one another in certain areas (Segal et al., 2015; Sudharsanan et al., 2016; Isungset et al., 2021). In sum, the question of how much of a given behavior is due to nature, and how much to nurture, is a challenging one. Ultimately, we should consider the two sides of the nature– nurture issue as opposite ends of a continuum, with particular behaviors falling somewhere between the two ends. We can say something similar about the other controversies that we have considered. For instance, continuous versus discontinuous development is not an either-or proposition; some forms of development fall toward the continuous end of the continuum, whereas others lie closer to the discontinuous end. In short, few statements about development involve either-or absolutes (Verdejo-Garcia, 2020). Module 1.1 Review LO 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. Lifespan development, a scientific approach to understanding human growth and change throughout life, encompasses physical, cognitive, social, and personality development. (history-graded influences). People are also subject to agegraded influences, sociocultural-graded influences, and nonnormative life events. Culture and ethnicity also play an important role in development—both broad culture and aspects of culture, such as race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. LO 1.2 LO 1.4 Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover. Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development. Developmentalists focus on physical development, on cognitive development, and on personality and social development. In addition to choosing to specialize in a particular topical area, developmentalists also typically look at a particular age range. Four important issues in lifespan development are continuity versus discontinuity in development, the importance of critical periods, whether to focus on certain periods or on the entire life span, and the nature–nurture controversy. LO 1.3 Journal Prompt Describe some of the basic influences on human development. Membership in a cohort, based on age and place of birth, subjects people to influences based on historical events Applying Lifespan Development: What are some examples of the ways culture (either broad culture or aspects of culture) affects human development? for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development In Europe, there was no concept of “childhood” until the 17th century. Instead, children were simply thought of as miniature adults. They were assumed to be subject to the same needs and desires as adults, to have the same vices and virtues as adults, and to warrant no more privileges than adults. They were dressed the same as adults, and their work hours were the same as adults. Children also received the same punishments for misdeeds. If they stole, they were hanged; if they did well, they could achieve prosperity, at least so far as their station in life or social class would allow. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development 13 Society’s view of childhood and what is appropriate to ask of children has changed through the ages. These children worked full-time in mines early in the 1900s. This view of childhood seems wrong-headed now, but at the time it was what passed for lifespan development. From this perspective, there were no differences due to age; except for size, people were assumed to be virtually unchanging, at least on a psychological level, throughout most of the life span (Ariès, 1962). Although, looking back across several centuries, it is easy to reject the medieval view of childhood, it is less clear how to formulate a contemporary substitute. Should our view of development focus on the biological aspects of change, growth, and stability over the life span? The cognitive or social aspects? Or some other factors? People who study lifespan development approach the field from different perspectives. Each general perspective encompasses one or more theories—broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. A theory provides a framework for understanding the relationships among a seemingly unorganized set of facts or principles. We all develop theories about development based on our experience, folklore, and what we read. However, theories in lifespan development are different. Whereas our own personal theories are built on unverified observations that are developed haphazardly, developmentalists’ theories are more formal and are based on a systematic integration of prior findings and theorizing. These theories allow developmentalists to summarize and organize prior observations, and they also permit them to move beyond existing observations to draw deductions that may not be immediately apparent. In addition, these theories are then subject to rigorous testing in the form of research. By contrast, the developmental theories of individuals are not subject to such testing and may never be questioned at all. We will consider six major theoretical perspectives used in lifespan development: the psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, contextual, and evolutionary perspectives. Each emphasizes somewhat different aspects of development and steers developmentalists in particular directions. Furthermore, each perspective continues to evolve and change, as befits a growing and dynamic discipline. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person LO 1.5 Describe how the psychodynamic perspective explains lifespan development. When Marisol was 6 months old, she was involved in a bloody automobile accident—or so her parents tell her because she has no conscious recollection of it. Now, however, at age 24, she is having difficulty maintaining relationships, and her therapist is seeking to determine whether her current problems are a result of that accident. Looking for such a link might seem a bit far-fetched, but to proponents of the psychodynamic perspective, it is not so improbable. Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that much of behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts psychodynamic perspective the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control 14 PART 1 Beginnings psychoanalytic theory the theory proposed by Sigmund Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior psychosexual development AISA - Everett/Shutterstock according to Sigmund Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function and body part Sigmund Freud. of which a person has little awareness or control. The inner forces, which may stem from one’s childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the life span. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY. The psychodynamic perspective is most closely associated with a single person and theory: Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalytic theory. Freud, who lived from 1856 to 1939, was a Viennese physician whose revolutionary ideas ultimately had a profound effect not only on the fields of psychology and psychiatry but also on Western thought in general (Greenberg, 2012; Roth, 2016). Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. To Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands, and needs that, because of their disturbing nature, are hidden from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behavior. According to Freud, everyone’s personality has three aspects: id, ego, and superego. The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. The ego is the part of personality that is rational and reasonable. The ego acts as a buffer between the real world outside of us and the primitive id. Finally, the superego represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It begins to develop around age 5 or 6 and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers, and other significant figures. In addition to providing an account of the various parts of the personality, Freud also suggested the ways in which personality developed during childhood. He argued that psychosexual development occurs as children pass through a series of stages in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. As illustrated in Table 1-3, he suggested that pleasure shifts from the mouth (the oral stage) to the anus (the anal stage) and eventually to the genitals (the phallic stage and the genital stage). Table 1-3 Freud’s and Erikson’s Theories Approximate Age Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Major Characteristics of Freud’s Stages Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Positive and Negative Outcomes of Erikson’s Stages Birth to 12–18 months Oral Interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting Trust versus mistrust Positive: Feelings of trust from environmental support Negative: Fear and concern regarding others 12–18 months to 3 years Anal Gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society’s controls relating to toilet training Autonomy versus shame and doubt Positive: Self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged Negative: Doubts about self, lack of independence 3 to 5–6 years Phallic Interest in the genitals; coming to terms with Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same-sex parent Initiative versus guilt Positive: Discovery of ways to initiate actions Negative: Guilt from actions and thoughts 5–6 years to adolescence Latency Sexual concerns largely unimportant Industry versus inferiority Positive: Development of sense of competence Negative: Feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery Adolescence to adulthood (Freud) Adolescence (Erikson) Genital Reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships Identity versus role diffusion Positive: Awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed Negative: Inability to identify appropriate roles in life Early adulthood (Erikson) Intimacy versus isolation Positive: Development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships Negative: Fear of relationships with others Middle adulthood (Erikson) Generativity versus stagnation Positive: Sense of contribution to continuity of life Negative: Trivialization of one’s activities Late adulthood (Erikson) Ego integrity versus despair Positive: Sense of unity in life’s accomplishments Negative: Regret over lost opportunities of life for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development 15 According to Freud, if children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently during a particular stage—or conversely, if they receive too much gratification—fixation may occur. Fixation is behavior reflecting a previous stage of development due to an unresolved conflict. For instance, fixation at the oral stage might produce an adult who is unusually absorbed in oral activities—eating, talking, or chewing gum. Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, who lived from 1902 to 1994, provided an alternative psychodynamic view in his theory of psychosocial development, which emphasizes our social interaction with other people. In Erikson’s view, both society and culture challenge and shape us. Psychosocial development encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society (Erikson, 1963; Knight, 2017; Thompson, 2021). Erikson’s theory suggests that developmental change occurs throughout our lives in eight distinct stages (see Table 1-3). The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people. Erikson argued that each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve. Although no crisis is ever fully resolved, making life increasingly complicated, the individual must at least address the crisis of each stage sufficiently to deal with demands made during the next stage of development. Unlike Freud, who regarded development as relatively complete by adolescence, Erikson suggested that growth and change continue throughout the life span. For instance, as we’ll discuss further in Chapter 16, Erikson suggested that during middle adulthood, people pass through the generativity versus stagnation stage, in which their contributions to family, community, and society can produce either positive feelings about the continuity of life or a sense of stagnation and disappointment about what they are passing on to future generations (de St. Aubin et al., 2004). It is hard for us to grasp the full significance of psychodynamic theories represented by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Freud’s introduction of the notion that unconscious influences affect behavior was a monumental accomplishment, and that it seems at all reasonable to us shows how extensively the idea of the unconscious has pervaded thinking in Western cultures. In fact, work by contemporary researchers studying memory and learning suggests that we carry with us memories—of which we are not consciously aware—that have a significant impact on our behavior. However, many of the most basic principles of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory have been called into question because they have not been validated by subsequent research. In particular, the notion that people pass through various stages in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little definitive research support. In addition, because much of Freud’s theory was based on a limited population of upper-middleclass Austrians living during a strict, puritanical era, its application to broad, multicultural populations is questionable. Finally, because Freud’s theory focuses primarily on male development, it has been criticized as sexist and may be interpreted as devaluing women. For such reasons, many developmentalists question Freud’s theory (O’Neil & Denke, 2016; Jacobs, 2019). Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the life span is highly important—and has received considerable support. However, the theory also has its drawbacks. Like Freud’s theory, it focuses more on men’s than women’s development. It is also vague in some respects, making it difficult for researchers to test rigorously. And, as is the case with psychodynamic theories in general, it is difficult to make definitive predictions about a given individual’s behavior using the theory. In sum, then, the psychodynamic perspective provides good descriptions of past behavior but imprecise predictions of future behavior (de St. Aubin et al., 2004; Balsam, 2013). ASSESSING THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE. Jon Erikson/Science Source ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY. Erik Erikson. psychosocial development the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society 16 PART 1 Beginnings The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior LO 1.6 behavioral perspective the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment Describe how the behavioral perspective explains lifespan development. When Elissa Sheehan was 3, a large brown dog bit her, and she needed dozens of stitches and several operations. From the time she was bitten, she broke into a sweat whenever she saw a dog and, in fact, never enjoyed being around any pet. To a lifespan development specialist using the behavioral perspective, the explanation for Elissa’s behavior is straightforward: She has a learned fear of dogs. Rather than looking inside the organism at unconscious processes, the behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. If we know the stimuli, we can predict the behavior. In this respect, the behavioral perspective reflects the view that nurture is more important to development than nature. Behavioral theories reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. Instead, people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to be exposed. Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set of environmental stimuli, and behavior is the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment. Furthermore, developmental change is viewed in quantitative, rather than qualitative, terms. For instance, behavioral theories hold that advances in problem-solving capabilities as children age are largely a result of greater mental capacities rather than changes in the kind of thinking that children are able to bring to bear on a problem. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: STIMULUS SUBSTITUTION. Archive Photos/Getty Images Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities. (Watson, J. B.. Behaviorism. Norton.) John B. Watson. classical conditioning a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response operant conditioning a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences With these words, John B. Watson, one of the first American psychologists to advocate a behavioral approach, summed up the behavioral perspective. Watson, who lived from 1878 to 1958, believed strongly that we could gain a full understanding of development by carefully studying the stimuli that composed the environment. In fact, he argued that by effectively controlling a person’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior. As we’ll consider further in Chapter 5, classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not evoke that type of response. For instance, if a dog is repeatedly exposed to the pairing of the sound of a bell and the presentation of meat, it may learn to react to the bell alone in the same way it reacts to the meat—by salivating and wagging its tail with excitement. Dogs don’t typically respond to bells in this way; the behavior is a result of conditioning, a form of learning in which the response associated with one stimulus (food) comes to be connected to another—in this case, the bell. The same process of classical conditioning explains how we learn emotional responses. In the case of dog-bite victim Elissa Sheehan, for instance, Watson would say that one stimulus has been substituted for another: Elissa’s unpleasant experience with a particular dog (the initial stimulus) has been transferred to other dogs and to pets in general. In addition to classical conditioning, other types of learning also derive from the behavioral perspective. The learning approach that probably has had the greatest influence is operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences. It differs from classical OPERANT CONDITIONING. for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development conditioning in that the response being conditioned is voluntary and purposeful rather than automatic (such as salivating). In operant conditioning, formulated and championed by psychologist B. F. Skinner, who lived from 1904 to 1990, individuals learn to act deliberately on their environment to bring about desired consequences (Skinner, 1975). In a sense, then, people operate on their environment to bring about a desired state of affairs. Whether children and adults will seek to repeat a behavior depends on whether it is followed by reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Hence, a student is apt to work harder in school if they receive good grades; workers are likely to labor harder at their jobs if their efforts are tied to pay increases; and people are more apt to buy lottery tickets if they are reinforced by winning occasionally. In addition, punishment, the introduction of an unpleasant or a painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus, will decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur in the future. Behavior that is reinforced, then, is more likely to be repeated in the future, and behavior that receives no reinforcement or is punished is likely to be discontinued, or in the language of operant conditioning, extinguished. Principles of operant conditioning are used in behavior modification, a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. Behavior modification has been used in a variety of situations, ranging from teaching severely intellectually disabled people the rudiments of language to helping people stick to diets (Wirth et al., 2014; Miltenberger, 2016; Isaksson et al., 2021). 17 behavior modification a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY: LEARNING THROUGH IMITATION. social-cognitive learning theory learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model From a Social Worker’s Perspective How do the concepts of social learning and modeling relate to the mass media, and how might exposure to mass media influence a child’s family life? What form of learning is being demonstrated in this picture? India Picture/Shutterstock A 5-year-old boy seriously injured his 22-month-old cousin while imitating a violent wrestling move he had seen on television. Although the infant sustained spinal cord injuries, he improved and was discharged 5 weeks after his hospital admission (Reuters Health eLine, 2002; Ray & Heyes, 2011). Cause and effect? We can’t know for sure, but it certainly seems possible, especially looking at the situation from the perspective of social-cognitive learning theory. According to developmental psychologist Albert Bandura and colleagues, a significant amount of learning is explained by social-cognitive learning theory, an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model (Bandura, 2002, 2019). According to social-cognitive learning theory, behavior is learned primarily through observation and not through trial and error, as it is with operant conditioning. We don’t need to experience the consequences of a behavior ourselves to learn it. Social-cognitive learning theory holds that when we see the behavior of a model being rewarded, we are likely to imitate that behavior. For instance, in one classic experiment, children who were afraid of dogs were exposed to a model, nicknamed the “Fearless Peer,” who was seen playing happily with a dog. After exposure, the children who previously had been afraid were more likely to approach a strange dog than children who had not seen the model (Bandura et al., 1967; Bandura, 2019). Bandura suggests that social-cognitive learning proceeds in four steps (Bandura, 1986). First, an observer must pay attention and perceive the most critical features of a model’s behavior. Second, the observer must successfully recall the behavior. Third, the observer must reproduce the behavior accurately. Finally, the observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behavior. 18 PART 1 Beginnings Research using the behavioral perspective has made significant contributions, ranging from techniques for educating children with severe intellectual disabilities to identifying procedures for curbing aggression. At the same time, controversies surround the behavioral perspective. For example, although they are part of the same general behavioral perspective, classical and operant conditioning and social learning theory diverge in basic ways. Both classical and operant conditioning present learning in terms of external stimuli and responses, in which the only important factors are the observable features of the environment. In such an analysis, people and other organisms are like an opaque box: Nothing that occurs inside the box is understood—nor much cared about, for that matter. To social learning theorists, such an analysis is an oversimplification. They argue that what makes people different from rats and pigeons is the occurrence of mental activity in the form of thoughts and expectations. A full understanding of people’s development, they maintain, cannot occur without moving beyond external stimuli and responses. In many ways, social learning theory has come to predominate in recent decades over classical and operant conditioning theories. In fact, another perspective that focuses explicitly on internal mental activity has become enormously influential. This is the cognitive approach, which we consider next. ASSESSING THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding LO 1.7 cognitive perspective the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world Describe how the cognitive perspective explains lifespan development. When 3-year-old Jake is asked why it sometimes rains, he answers “so the flowers can grow.” When his 11-year-old sister Lila is asked the same question, she responds “because of evaporation from the surface of the earth.” And when their cousin Ajima, who is studying meteorology in graduate school, considers the same question, her extended answer includes a discussion of cumulonimbus clouds, the Coriolis effect, and synoptic charts. To a developmental theorist using the cognitive perspective, the difference in the sophistication of the answers is evidence of a different degree of knowledge and understanding, or cognition. The cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world. The cognitive perspective emphasizes how people internally represent and think about the world. By using this perspective, developmental researchers hope to understand how children and adults process information and how their ways of thinking and understanding affect their behavior. They also seek to learn how cognitive abilities change as people develop, the degree to which cognitive development represents quantitative and qualitative growth in intellectual abilities, and how different cognitive abilities are related to one another. PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT. No single person has had a greater impact on the study of cognitive development than Jean Piaget, who lived from 1896 to 1980. A Swiss psychologist, Piaget proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. He suggested that not only does the quantity of information increase in each stage, but the quality of knowledge and understanding alao changes. His focus was on the change in cognition that occurs as children move from one stage to the next (Piaget, 1962, 1983). Although we’ll consider Piaget’s theory in detail beginning in Chapter 5, we can get a broad sense of it now. Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, that is, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions. In infants, such schemes represent concrete behavior—a scheme for sucking, for reaching, and for each separate behavior. In older children, the schemes become more sophisticated and abstract, such as the set of skills involved in riding a bike or playing an interactive video game. Schemes are like intellectual computer software programs that direct and determine how data from the world are looked at and handled (Arnold, 2018; Wuth et al., 2021). for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development 19 Piaget suggests that the growth in children’s understanding of the world can be explained by the two basic principles of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process through which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. Assimilation occurs when people use their current ways of thinking about and understanding the world to perceive and understand a new experience. In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. Assimilation and accommodation work in tandem to bring about cognitive development. Assessing Piaget’s Theory. Piaget has profoundly influenced our understanding of cognitive development and is one of the towering figures in lifespan development. He provided masterful descriptions of how intellectual growth proceeds during childhood— descriptions that have stood the test of literally thousands of investigations. By and large, then, Piaget’s broad view of the sequence of cognitive development is accurate. However, the specifics of the theory, particularly in terms of change in cognitive capabilities over time, have been called into question. For instance, some cognitive skills clearly emerge earlier than Piaget suggested. Furthermore, the universality of Piaget’s stages has been disputed. A growing amount of evidence suggests that the emergence of particular cognitive skills occurs according to a different timetable in non-Western cultures. And in every culture, some people never seem to reach Piaget’s highest level of cognitive sophistication: formal, logical thought (De Jesus-Zayas et al., 2012; Siegler, 2016; Babakr et al., 2019). Ultimately, the greatest criticism leveled at the Piagetian perspective is that cognitive development is not necessarily as discontinuous as Piaget’s stage theory suggests. Remember that Piaget argued that growth proceeds in four distinct stages in which the quality of cognition differs from one stage to the next. However, many developmental researchers argue that growth is considerably more continuous. These critics have suggested an alternative perspective, known as the information processing approach, which focuses on the processes that underlie learning, memory, and thinking throughout the life span. INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES. Information processing approaches have become an important alternative to Piagetian approaches. Information processing approaches to cognitive development seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information. Information processing approaches grew out of developments in the electronic processing of information, particularly as carried out by computers. They assume that even complex behavior such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps. Like computers, children are assumed by information processing approaches to have limited capacity for processing information. As they develop, however, they employ increasingly sophisticated strategies that allow them to process information more efficiently. In stark contrast to Piaget’s view that thinking undergoes qualitative advances as children age, information processing approaches assume that development is marked more by quantitative advances. Our capacity to handle information changes with age, as does our processing speed and efficiency. Furthermore, information processing approaches suggest that as we age, we are better able to control the nature of processing and that we can change the strategies we use to process information. An information processing approach that builds on Piaget’s research is known as neoPiagetian theory. In contrast to Piaget’s original work, which viewed cognition as a single system of increasingly sophisticated general cognitive abilities, neo-Piagetian theory considers cognition as being made up of different types of individual skills. Using the terminology of information processing approaches, neo-Piagetian theory suggests that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others. For example, reading ability and the skills needed to recall stories may progress sooner than the sorts of abstract information processing approaches models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information 20 PART 1 Beginnings computational abilities used in algebra or trigonometry. Furthermore, neo-Piagetian theorists believe that experience plays a greater role in advancing cognitive development than traditional Piagetian approaches claim (Loewen, 2006; Barrouillet & Gaillard, 2011). Assessing Information Processing Approaches. As we’ll see in future chapters, information processing approaches have become a central part of our understanding of development. At the same time, they do not offer a complete explanation for behavior. For example, information processing approaches have paid little attention to behavior such as creativity, in which the most profound ideas often are developed in a seemingly nonlogical, nonlinear manner. In addition, they do not take into account the social context in which development takes place. That’s one of the reasons that theories emphasizing the social and cultural aspects of development have become increasingly popular—as we’ll discuss next. One of the most recent additions to the array of approaches taken by lifespan developmentalists, cognitive neuroscience approaches look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. Like other cognitive perspectives, cognitive neuroscience approaches consider internal mental processes, but they focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity rather than simply assuming that there are hypothetical or theoretical cognitive structures related to thinking. For example, using sophisticated brain scanning techniques, cognitive neuroscientists have demonstrated that thinking about the meaning of a word activates different areas of the brain than thinking about how the word sounds when spoken. The work of cognitive neuroscientists is also providing clues to the cause of autism spectrum disorder, a developmental disability that can produce profound language deficits and self-injurious behavior in young children. For example, neuroscientists have found that the brains of children with the disorder sometimes show explosive, dramatic growth in the first year of life, making their heads significantly larger than those of children without the disorder. Furthermore, brain scans show structural differences in the brains of children (see Figure 1-2). By identifying children with the disorder while they are young, COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACHES. cognitive neuroscience approaches approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes Figure 1-2 The Brain and Children with Autism Researchers have found abnormalities in the temporal lobe of the brain in some children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. (Source: Boddaert N., et al.. MRI Findings in 77 Children with Non-Syndromic Autistic Disorder, PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e4415.) for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development 21 health care practitioners can provide crucial early intervention (Grant, 2017; BejaranoMartín, 2019; Weichwald & Peters, 2021). Cognitive neuroscience approaches are also on the forefront of cutting-edge research that has identified specific genes associated with disorders ranging from physical problems such as breast cancer to psychological disorders such as schizophrenia. Identifying the genes that make one vulnerable to such disorders is the first step in genetic engineering in which gene therapy can reduce or even prevent the disorder from occurring (Rodnitzky, 2012; Wylie et al., 2020; Madan, 2021). Assessing Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches. Cognitive neuroscience approaches represent a new frontier in child and adolescent development. Using sophisticated measurement techniques that have been developed only in the past few years, cognitive neuroscientists are able to peer into the inner functioning of the brain. Advances in our understanding of genetics also has opened a new window into both normal and abnormal development and has suggested a variety of treatments for abnormalities. Critics of the cognitive neuroscience approach have suggested that it sometimes provides a better description than explanation of developmental phenomena. For instance, the finding that children with autism spectrum disorder have larger brains than those without the disorder does not explain why their brains became larger—that’s a question that remains to be answered. Still, such work not only offers important clues to appropriate treatments but ultimately can also lead to a full understanding of a range of developmental phenomena. The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings LO 1.8 Describe how the humanistic perspective explains lifespan development. The unique qualities of humans are the central focus of the humanistic perspective, the fourth of the major theories used by lifespan developmentalists. Rejecting the notion that our behavior is largely determined by unconscious processes, by learning from our environment, or by rational cognitive processing, the humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and to control their behavior. According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential (Brown et al., 2019). The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. Instead of relying on societal standards, then, people are assumed to be motivated to make their own decisions about what they do with their lives. Carl Rogers, who lived from 1902 to 1987, one of the major proponents of the humanistic perspective, suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who provide this positive regard, we become dependent on them. Consequently, our view of ourselves and our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us (Rogers, 1971; Malchiodi, 2012; Joseph, 2020). Rogers, along with another key figure in the humanistic perspective, Abraham Maslow, who lived from 1908 to 1970, suggests that self-actualization is a primary goal in life. Self-actualization is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way. Although the concept initially was deemed to apply to only a few select famous people, such as Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, and Albert Einstein, later theorists expanded the concept to apply to any person who realizes their own potential and possibilities (Maslow, 1970; Malchiodi, 2012; Kaufman, 2021). Despite its emphasis on important and unique human qualities, the humanistic perspective has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. Its lack of influence is primarily due to its inability to identify any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of increasing age or experience. Still, ASSESSING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE. humanistic perspective the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior 22 PART 1 Beginnings some of the concepts drawn from the humanistic perspective, such as self-actualization, have helped describe important aspects of human behavior and are widely discussed in areas ranging from health care to business (Elkins, 2009; Beitel et al., 2014; Joseph, 2020). The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development LO 1.9 contextual perspective the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds Describe how the contextual perspective explains lifespan development. Although lifespan developmentalists often consider the course of development separately in terms of physical, cognitive, personality, and social factors, such a categorization has one serious drawback: In the real world, none of these broad influences occurs in isolation from any other. Instead, there is a constant, ongoing interaction between the different types of influence. The contextual perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. It suggests that a person’s unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context. We’ll consider two major theories that fall under this category: Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. In acknowledging the problem with traditional approaches to lifespan development, psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, who lived from 1917 to 2005, proposed an alternative perspective, called the bioecological approach (2000, 2002). The bioecological approach suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals. Bronfenbrenner noted that we cannot fully understand development without considering how a person is influenced by each of these levels (illustrated in Figure 1-3). THE BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT. Figure 1-3 Bronfenbrenner’s Approach to Development Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach to development offers five levels of the environment that simultaneously influence individuals: the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem, and chronosystem. Macrosystem ideologies of the d n a s cultu e itud re Att Ex o sy s t e m M e s o sys te m Friends of family Neighbors s y s te m M icro Family Health services Church group Mass media School The Individual: Sex Peers Age Health etc. Neighborhood play area Legal services Social welfare services Chronosystem (patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course; sociohistorical conditions) (sociohistorical conditions and time since life events) the approach suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals Time bioecological approach for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development The microsystem is the everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives. Homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers all are influences that are part of the microsystem. But the child is not just a passive recipient of these influences. Instead, children actively help construct the microsystem, shaping the immediate world in which they live. The microsystem is the level at which most traditional work in child development has been directed. The mesosystem provides connections between the various aspects of the microsystem. Like links in a chain, the mesosystem binds children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends. It acknowledges the direct and indirect influences that bind us to one another, such as those that affect a parent who has a bad day at the office and then is short-tempered with their child at home. The exosystem represents broader influences, encompassing societal institutions such as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. Each of these larger institutions of society can have an immediate, and major, impact on personal development, and each affects how the microsystem and mesosystem operate. For example, the quality of a school will affect a child’s cognitive development and potentially can have long-term consequences. The macrosystem represents the larger cultural influences on an individual. Society in general, types of governments, religious and political value systems, and other broad, encompassing factors are parts of the macrosystem. For example, the value a culture or society places on education or the family will affect the values of the people who live in that society. Children are part of a broader culture (such as Western culture) and are influenced by their membership in a particular subculture (for instance, being part of the Mexican American subculture). Finally, the chronosystem underlies each of the previous systems. It involves the way the passage of time, including historical events (such as the COVID-19 pandemic) and more gradual historical changes (such as changes in the number of women who work outside of the home), affect children’s development. The bioecological approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. Because the various levels are related to one another, a change in one part of the system affects other parts of the system. For instance, a parent’s loss of a job (involving the mesosystem) has an impact on a child’s microsystem. Conversely, changes on one environmental level may make little difference if other levels are not also changed. For instance, improving the school environment may have a negligible effect on academic performance if children receive little support for academic success at home. Similarly, the bioecological approach illustrates that the influences among different family members are multidirectional. Parents don’t just influence their child’s behavior; children also influence their parents’ behavior. Finally, the bioecological approach stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. Researchers in lifespan development increasingly look at how membership in cultural and subcultural groups influences behavior. Consider, for instance, whether you agree that children should be taught that their classmates’ assistance is indispensable to getting good grades in school, that they should definitely plan to continue their parents’ businesses, or that children should follow their parents’ advice in determining their career plans. If you have been raised in the most widespread North American culture, you would likely disagree with all three statements because they violate the premises of individualism, the dominant Western philosophy that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. By contrast, if you were raised in a traditional Chinese or Japanese culture, your agreement with the three statements would be considerably more likely. The reason? The statements reflect the value orientation known as collectivism—the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual. People raised in 23 Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock Ariel Skelley/DigitalVision/Getty Images 24 PART 1 Beginnings The bioecological approach to development focuses on the vast differences in environments in which children develop. collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize the welfare of the groups to which they belong, sometimes even at the expense of their own personal well-being. The individualism–collectivism spectrum is one of several dimensions along which cultures differ. Similarly, the roles played by men and women also vary across cultures in significant ways. Such broad cultural values play an important role in shaping the ways people view the world and behave (Cheung et al., 2016; Sparrow, 2016; Lu, Jin et al., 2021). Assessing the Bioecological Approach. Although Bronfenbrenner considered biological influences as an important component of the bioecological approach, ecological influences are central to the theory. Some critics argue that the perspective pays insufficient attention to biological factors. Still, the bioecological approach is of considerable importance to lifespan development, suggesting as it does the multiple levels at which the environment affects development (Kiyala, 2021). To Russian developmentalist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, who lived from 1896 to 1934, a full understanding of development was impossible without taking into account the culture in which people develop. Vygotsky’s sociocultural sociocultural theory theory emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions the approach that emphasizes how between members of a culture (Vygotsky, 1926/1997; Fleer, et al., 2017; Lemke, 2020). cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions Vygotsky argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through between members of a culture their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. As children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society and, at the same time, advance cognitively in their understanding of the world. Consequently, to understand the course of development, we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. More than most other theories, sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is a reciprocal transaction between the people in a child’s environment and the child. Vygotsky believed that people and settings influence the child, who in turn influences the people and settings. This pattern continues in an endless loop, with children being both recipients of socialization influences and sources of influence. For example, a child raised with their extended family nearby will grow up with a different sense of family life than a child whose relatives live a considerable distance away. Those relatives, too, are affected by that situation and According to Vygotsky, children can develop cognitively in their that child, depending on how close and frequent their contact understanding of the world and learn what is important in society through play and cooperation with others. is with the child. Ami Parikh/Shutterstock VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY. for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: [email protected] Chapteremail 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development 25 Theorists who built on Vygotsky’s work have used the example of scaffolds, the temporary platforms used by construction workers when building a structure, to describe how children learn. Scaffolding is the temporary support that teachers, parents, and others provide children as they are learning a task. As children become increasingly competent and become skilled at a task, the scaffolding can be withdrawn, allowing children to carry out the task on their own (Lowe et al., 2013; Peralta et al., 2013; Dahl et al., 2017). Assessing Vygotsky’s Theory. Sociocultural theory has become increasingly influential in the decades since Vygotsky’s death. The reason is the growing acknowledgment of the central importance of cultural factors in development. Children do not develop in a cultural vacuum. Instead, their attention is directed by society to certain areas, and as a consequence, they develop particular kinds of skills that are an outcome of their cultural environment. Vygotsky was one of the first developmentalists to recognize and acknowledge the importance of culture, and—as today’s society becomes increasingly multicultural—sociocultural theory is helping us to understand the rich and varied influences that shape development (Frie, 2014; van der Veer & Yasnitsky, 2016; Lemke, 2020). Sociocultural theory is not without its critics, however. Some suggest that Vygotsky’s strong emphasis on the role of culture and social experience led him to ignore the effects of biological factors on development. In addition, his perspective seems to minimize the role that individuals can play in shaping their own environment. Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior Describe how the evolutionary perspective explains lifespan development. One increasingly influential approach is the evolutionary perspective, the sixth and final developmental perspective that we will consider. The evolutionary perspective evolutionary perspective seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors the theory that seeks to identify (Tomasello, 2011; Shackleford, 2021). behavior that is a result of our Evolutionary approaches have grown out of the groundbreaking work of Charles genetic inheritance from our Darwin (1809–1882). In his book, On the Origin of Species (1859), Darwin argued that a ancestors process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment. Using Darwin’s arguments, evolutionary approaches contend that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color but also certain personality traits and social behaviors. For instance, some evolutionary developmentalists suggest that traits such as shyness and jealousy are produced in part by genetic causes, presumably because they helped increase the survival rates of humans’ ancient relatives (Buss, 2012; Geary & Berch, 2016; Hassan et al., 2021). The evolutionary perspective draws heavily on the field of ethology, which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. A primary proponent of ethology was Konrad Lorenz, who lived from 1903 to 1989 and discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached to the first moving object they see after birth. His work, which demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behavior patterns, ultimately led developmentalists to consider the ways in which human behavior might reflect inborn genetic patterns. As we’ll consider further in Chapter 2, the Konrad Lorenz, seen here with geese that from their birth followed him, considered evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the the ways in which behavior reflects inborn genetic patterns. Nina Leen/The LIFE Picture Collection/Shutterstock LO 1.10 26 PART 1 Beginnings fastest-growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral geneticists seek to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits. It also considers how genetic

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