Basics of School Curriculum PDF

Basics of School Curriculum Prepared By Group of Faculty Members Department of Curricula and Instruction Faculty of Education - Ain Shams University 2023 1  Content Chapter Ti...

Basics of School Curriculum Prepared By Group of Faculty Members Department of Curricula and Instruction Faculty of Education - Ain Shams University 2023 1  Content Chapter Title Page Chapter One Introduction To the Study of Curriculum 3 Chapter Two Curriculum system and its elements 21 Chapter Three Curriculum Construction & Planning Bases 38 Chapter Four Science Curriculum Designs 52 Chapter Five Approaches of Curriculum Building and 72 Organization Chapter Six Global Trends in Constructing And 91 Developing Science Curricula 2  Chapter 1 An Introduction to Curriculum Studies Prepared by Prof. Dr. Moharam Yahia Mohamed Afifi Professor of Curricula and Instruction Faculty of Education – Ain Shams University 2023 3  Chapter 1 An Introduction to Curriculum Studies Chapter Objectives: By the end of this chapter student should be able to: 1. Define the curriculum in its traditional concept and in its modern concept 2. Compare modern and traditional curriculum 1. Criticize the traditional curriculum 2. List the factors that helped to develop the concept of the curriculum 3. Explain what is meant by learning experience 4. Distinguish the different types of experiences through the cone of experience. 5. Differentiate between the hidden curriculum and the official curriculum 6. Explain concepts related to curriculum development (such as: curriculum design – curriculum map – curriculum construction – curriculum evaluation) 4  Chapter 1 An Introduction to Curriculum Studies Introduction: the word “curriculum” is derived from the Latin verb currere, “to run.” “Currere” became a noun and meant a “racing chariot” or “race track.” An extension was made through associating the term with curriculum vitae that means “the course of one’s life.” also associating it with curricula mentis that metaphorically refers to “the (educational) course of the mind.” It was not until the nineteenth century that the term was commonly used in the educational field. Curriculum can be seen as a means of achieving specific educational goals and objectives. In this sense, a curriculum can be regarded as a checklist of desired outcomes. In the curriculum development process, generally speaking, the objectives are clear and specific in behavioral and observable terms. The emphasis on objectives is the characterization of an objectives – based curriculum model. In this sense, the focus is on products or ends, and is also teacher- orientated or administrative-oriented. There are different concepts of the curriculum, the difference between them is due to the goals of education and the related consideration of the content of the curriculum and its components and the relationship between these components, and what may result from the perception of the limits of the curriculum. The following is a presentation of the concept of curriculum in its traditional and modern meaning. First: The Traditional Concept of the Curriculum The curriculum in its traditional concept is a set of information and concepts that the school works to give to students with the intention of preparing them for life and developing their abilities by benefiting from the experiences of others. This information represents knowledge in its various aspects (languages / sciences / mathematics / history / geography) Under this concept, the curriculum became a set of courses prepared by specialists and studied by students. This means that the traditional curriculum is based on: ▪ Determining the necessary information for each subject according to what the specialists see in it and distributing it over the stages and years of study. ▪ Preparing textbooks for each subject according to the topics identified. ▪ Distribution of subjects related to the academic subject over the months of the year. 5 ▪ Determining the appropriate types of questions and tests to assess students' learning ▪ It is based on three sides: recitation by the teacher, memorization by the learner, and retrieving information in exams. The criticisms set against the curriculum in its traditional concept are summarized as: 1. The curriculum paid more attention to the cognitive aspect of information than to the rest of the other aspects of the student’s development (the physical aspect/ the religious aspect/ the social aspect, the technical aspect), and even with regard to the mental aspect, the attention was focused on just filling the mind with information and studying some materials as a means to achieve Mental growth and the development of the ability to think, and it has been proven later that the development of the ability to think requires training students to solve the problems they face using the scientific method. 2. Neglecting the needs, tendencies and problems of students: where the traditional curriculum is represented in a set of information and concepts that are determined by specialists in different academic subjects without taking into account the needs, tendencies and problems of students, in addition to the interest of each teacher in his subject matter, and it is obvious that neglecting the needs, tendencies and problems of students has bad consequences, it may lead to dropping out of school, deviation and failure. 3. Neglecting directing behavior: Supporters of the traditional concept of the curriculum believed that students’ acquisition of knowledge leads to behavior modification, and this is a false belief, as knowledge alone is not sufficient to direct an individual’s behavior. Therefore, behavior modification requires an opportunity for training to practice the desired behavior. 4. Not taking into account individual differences: the curriculum in its traditional concept focuses on general information provided to all students through textbooks that address them in one way, and even the teacher often uses one method to teach all students. 5. Neglecting the formation of positive habits and attitudes among students: This is a natural result of the curriculum’s focus on information only, and there is no doubt that the formation of positive habits and attitudes (order / honesty / accuracy / respect for others / tendency towards reading / patriotism) is necessary for the individual and society. 6 6. Curriculum inflation: The continuous increase in various aspects of knowledge led the curriculum developers to introduce continuous additions to them so that they became a heavy burden on the teacher and student. 7. Neglecting practical studies: The focus of the curriculum on information and the teacher's resort to the verbal method of explanation and interpretation led to the neglect of practical studies despite their importance in acquiring skills and the ability to think and the development of tendencies towards work and respecting it. 8. Lack of interest in educational activities, despite their importance and effective role in the educational process. It was limited to recreational activities that occupy little time in the study program 9. Poor communication between the school and the environment: The focus of the curriculum on information and printing it in textbooks taught to all students in different environments, led to the school not being given the opportunity to communicate and interact with the environment and contribute to solving its problems. 10.Pupils' boredom from studying: the continuous focus on information, memorization and examination in it, and the lack of interest in educational activities has led to students' boredom from studying and an increase in the dropout rate. Second: The Modern Concept of The Curriculum: The modern concept of the curriculum emerged because of the criticisms leveled at the curriculum in its traditional concept, and the emergence of some ideas and theories represented in: 1. The emergence and advancement of industries has led to interest in work and professional education, this trend was supported by many educators such as (Jean Jacques Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel) This has led to interest in activities and their inclusion in the school curricula and considering them as part of the modern curriculum. 2. The results of psychology studies showed that personality is an integrated unit with multiple aspects, so focusing on one aspect and neglecting the rest of the aspects does not lead to achieving the desired goal. This has led to the need to pay attention to all aspects of cognitive domains (knowledge, affective, and psychomotor). 3. The results of studies of educational psychology and teaching methods have shown that the student's positiveness and activity are factors contributing to good learning, which has reduced the use of automatic verbal method of 7  education and provided the opportunity for active learning, i.e. making the learner a focus of the educational process. The modern curriculum means the range of experiences that the school provides to students inside or outside it in order to help them achieve inclusive and integrated growth, which leads to the modification of their behavior and works to achieve the desired educational objectives. The unit of building the modern curriculum is the experience. The previous definition contains three elements: 1. The quality of the experiences included in the curriculum: they are educational experiences, useful constructive to the individual and society, as there are experiences that are harmful and destructive to the individual and society. 2. The place of going through the experience: It is clear from the previous definition that the learner passes through the experience under the supervision of the school, whether it is inside (classroom/lab/playground) or outside (trips/camps). Here, the difference between the modern and the traditional concept is illustrated, with the traditional concept focusing on the acquisition of information within the classroom. 3. The goal of gaining the experience: The goal of gaining experience is to help students achieve comprehensive growth in all areas in accordance with its nature, physical composition, and environmental and social conditions, in another meaning, achieving balanced growth. The primary goal of the curriculum is to change the behavior of individuals. ▪ Curriculum and Learning Experience: Experience is the unit of building the curriculum in its modern concept, and it is the first basis for building the curriculum. Experience is the result of the interaction that takes place between man and the environment, or it is a process of influence and influence between the individual and the environment, where he links what he does with the results he obtains, so he benefits from that in modifying His behavior, increasing his ability to direct and control his experiences, and modify his behavior and learn. Learning experience refers to any interaction course, program or other experience in which learning takes place, whether it occurs in traditional academic setting (schools’ classrooms) or non- traditional academic setting (outside of school locations, outdoor environment or whether it include traditional educational interactions (students learning from teachers and professors) or nontraditional interactions (student learning through games and interactive software applications). According to Tyler learning experiences are the interactions between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. It is an activity which may be planned 8 by the class or teacher but perform by the learner for the purpose of achieving some important learning objectives. There are various types of activities that can be performed by the learners in the study of various school subjects to enhance learning. There are also various activities which teachers perform as they teach learners, but then, learning experiences are not what the teachers do, it is not the teacher methodology, but those activities performed by the learners themselves. ▪ CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCE The condition for selecting learning experiences by the experts must base on the recent or modern principles of learning. These criteria are: 1. Validity: Learning experience is valid when it related objectives are in any of the three domains; cognitive, affective, and psychomotor, the learning experience must be holistic to involve all the domains. 2. Variety: Learners are different and learn, in different ways base on their interest and ability therefore varied learning experience must be provided to help them comprehend 3. Interest: So that the desired objectives can be achieve and for learners to demand pleasure learning experiences from them must be of great interest to the learner. 4. Relevance to Life: Learning experience must be relevant to real-life situations in school and in the society to help learners understand their society and proffer solutions to some problems of the society. This is where community- based resources come to play. Experience in real content and situation bring realism to teaching and learning. 5. Suitability: Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather be suitable for the age or level of the learners and for the content which it is meant for. 6. Comprehensive: Learning experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must range from the simplest learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of learning. ▪ The Cone of Experience: Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience helps professionals and instructional designers to plan learning experiences that take advantage of the most effective learning environments. This 11-stage model places multimedia elements into categories based on their ‘concreteness’. In his first edition of Audiovisual Methods in Teaching, Dale introduced the ‘Cone of Experience’. The Cone placed different educational media and methods in a continuum from the most concrete experiences at the bottom to the most abstract at the top. When a learner moves from direct and purposeful experiences to verbal symbols, the degree of abstraction gradually grows. And as a result, learners become spectators rather 9 than participants. Learners can see, handle, taste, touch, feel and smell the most purposeful experiences. By contrast, verbal symbols, such as use of words, speech, or auditory language, at the peak of the Cone are highly abstract. As such, the Cone of Experience explains the interrelationships of the various types of media and their individual ‘positions’ in the learning process. This makes it a valuable tool that helps instructional designers incorporate the right audiovisual materials into their classroom or online training interventions. Figure 1. Dale`s Cine of Experience. Let’s have a look at each level individually 1. Direct Purposeful Experiences The bottom level of Dale’s Cone of Experience is also the least abstract. Direct purposeful experiences are hands-on activities that grant us responsibility for driving a specific outcome. We are active agents in the learning experience. In a sense, direct purposeful experiences are an unabridged version of life itself. These rich, full-bodied experiences can be considered the bedrock of all education. learners can see, handle, taste, feel, touch and smell these experiences. As such, at this level, learners use more senses to build up their knowledge. Learners learn by doing tasks themselves. As a result, learning happens through actual hands-on experiences. 10 2. Contrived Experiences The second level is called contrived experiences, which focuses on the ‘editing’ of reality. At this level, teachers use representative models and mock-ups to provide an experience that is as close to reality as possible. This can make the concept easier to grasp. After all, some realities are far too complex to take in all at once. As such, contrived experiences are imitations that sometimes teach better than the realities they imitate. Contrived experiences are very practical and make the learning experience more accessible. After all, they have a concrete nature that permits easy visualization and helps to foster a better understanding of the concept at hand. And on top of all that, contrived experiences are easier to manipulate or operate! 3. Dramatized Experiences Dramatized experiences can be seen as role-play exercises. This means reconstructing situations for learning purposes. As a result, the third level involves shifting learners — at least some of them — from observers to active participants. This enables learners to participate in reconstructed experiences that could give them a better understanding of the idea or concept. In this manner, dramatizing real-life experiences can help learners to get closer to certain realities that are not easily available first-hand. They also provide a safe environment for experimentation. Learners can become more familiar with the concepts as they emerge themselves into the “as-if” situation. Similarly, learners can observe their peers to take their learning even further! This enables them to compare and contrast what they may have done differently. 11 4. Demonstrations A demonstration is a visualized explanation of facts, ideas, or processes. They are a common way to train employees or students, as they require relatively little preparation and resources. After all, individuals observe a lot simply by watching others. On top of that, demonstrations can include pictures, drawings, film, and other types of media in order to facilitate clear and effective learning. This approach helps to showcase how individuals can complete these tasks in real life. Like exhibits and field trips, demonstrations may or may not include an element of participation. As such, demonstrations sit in the middle of the Cone based on their abstraction. Demonstrations are especially useful if a hands-on activity is logistically unfeasible. However, demonstrations don’t come without limitations! Learners may not interpret or conceive the information as well as intended. Other factors affect the learning experience too. For instance, some learners may have worse visibility of the demonstration. Similarly, demonstrations alone may not be enough in all learning situations. After all, seeing how a task is done is rarely as good as trying to do it ourselves. 4. Study Trip: Study trips offer the sights and sounds of real-world settings. The main activity focuses on observing from the sidelines, aside from occasional opportunities to participate. These rich experiences help learners to learn more about different objects, systems, and situations. As such, study trips provide an opportunity to experience something that learners cannot be encounter within the traditional classroom space. Similarly, field trips expand the social learning opportunities provided by online learning. As a result, the learning experience is not limited to the traditional training setting but rather extended to a more complex environment. The effectiveness of field trips has been researched extensively. They are well regarded, given how easy it is to provide every student with the same real-life experience. In addition, students can see connections between their training experiences and the ‘real world’. 12 6. Exhibits: The sixth level of Dale’s Cone of Experience moves us away from the most abstract experiences. This is the first level that opens the door for an expanded range of sensory and participatory experiences. most exhibits are experiences that are for the eyes only. Yet, some exhibits include sensory elements that can be related to direct purposeful experiences. These exhibits are specifically designed for interactivity. As a result, this experience allows learners to see the meaning and relevance of things based on the different pictures and representations presented. Visiting exhibits in educational outlets like museums are a common way to provide learning opportunities. exhibits are a great way to present students with exposure to new ideas, discoveries and inventions that would be more difficult to display in a classroom setting. 7. Motion Picture and 8. Educational Television: Most recent publications combine levels eight and seven into one category. After all, motion pictures and television are similar mediums. They enable learners to process real-life processes or events through on-screen recordings. Motion pictures and educational television include, for example, videos, animations and tv programmes, which imply value and messages through moving pictures. These are abstract experiences, as learners focus on observation instead of active participation. As a result, learners have little or no opportunity to participate in or use senses other than seeing and hearing. But while streaming experiences can’t recreate the richness of reality, videos do present an on-screen abstraction of real-life processes and events. In fact, videos are effective for presenting movement and continuity of ideas. You could even say that motion pictures and television provide a ‘window to the world’. This has benefits when it comes to using videos in training. Learners can also rewind and replay the video as many times as they need to. 9. Recordings, Radio, and Still Pictures Edgar Dale first created this model in 1946. As such, he included the multimedia assets of his time, such as recordings, radio and still pictures. In more modern terms, this level could include photos, podcasts, or audio files. Dale placed visual 13 and auditory media on a similar level of abstraction. After all, in both cases, you are merely observing visual symbols (like still photos) or verbal symbols (like audio recordings). Neither example actively asks anything of the learner. 10. Visual Symbols: The other highly abstract level includes visual symbols, such as charts, maps, graphs, and diagrams that are used for conceptual representation. These visual symbols help to make just about any reality into something easier to understand. In fact, from sports team logos to traffic signs, we see symbols everywhere. These symbols help people understand the world. Just as with verbal symbols, visual symbols help drive understanding by conveying a meaning that is shared by the rest of society. Visual symbols often include simple illustrations that do not include any unnecessary detail. 11.Verbal Symbols As explored, each level of the Cone moves the learner a step further away from real-life experiences. As such, experiences focusing only on the use of verbal symbols are the furthest removed from real life. Verbal symbols are highly abstract as they bear no physical resemblance to the objects or ideas they stand for. In fact, these verbal symbols provide no visual representation or clues to their meaning. ▪ Basic Concepts Associated with Curriculum Preparation Steps: There are basic concepts associated with Curriculum preparation steps, curriculum preparation steps are as follow: First Step: Determine the philosophy of the curriculum The directions, principles, and theoretical and educational foundations upon which it is based when planning and designing the curriculum are known as the philosophy of the curriculum. At this stage, a learning theory or educational approach is adopted, such as the environmental approach, the molecular approach, or the integrative approach. The psychological and social 14 characteristics of the students for whom the curriculum is designed are also studied. Second Step: Curriculum Design: ▪ Curriculum design focuses on the creation of the overall course blueprint, mapping content to learning objectives, including how to develop a course outline and build the course. ▪ The process of meaningfully constructing and interconnecting the components of a curriculum to address such fundamental questions as what needs to be learned and how and why, the resources required and how learning will be assessed. ▪ Each learning objective is met with assessment strategies, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, and interactive activities. At this stage, the general and specific objectives of the curriculum and the basic elements of the scientific content are determined. The educational activities, the teaching methods used, and the most important learning resources are determined, in addition to determining the appropriate evaluation methods. These elements are organized into an organized map known Curriculum Map. The Curriculum Map is a tool designed to organize the relationship between the components of the curriculum system and its elements. Curriculum Map is a reflective process that helps teachers understand what has been taught in a class, how it has been taught, and how learning outcomes were assessed. The curriculum mapping process results in a document known as a curriculum map. Most curriculum maps are graphical illustrations that consist of a table or matrix. Table 1 Curriculum Map general Specific Elements of the Appropriate educational learning appropriate objectives of the objectives of the scientific teaching activities resources evaluation curriculum curriculum content of the methods methods curriculum Third Step: Curriculum Construction: Curriculum building is the next stage of the curriculum design process. that is, the previous map is converted into an actual prepared curriculum. And that is by compiling the scientific material that covers the elements of the scientific content that were identified in the Curriculum map, preparing the textbook, then the 15 teacher’s guide that guides the teacher to the most important procedures and steps that can be followed in teaching the curriculum according to the teaching methods that were also identified in the Curriculum map. Also, the student`s book is prepared, that includes a set of activities and exercises that increase his effectiveness in the educational process and help him evaluate his learning. This means that there is no building without design. ▪ The Construction Process Goes Through Five Sequential Steps: 1. Defining the objectives: In this step, the curriculum objectives are derived from the general objectives of the grade level and considering the general objectives of teaching the subject. The objectives of the curriculum should be comprehensive, integrated, and balanced, according to the nature of the learner and the characteristics of his stage of development. 2. Choosing the content and learning experiences: Considering the objectives, the process of selecting the main topics of the content and the educational experiences associated with them begins, then the basic ideas and concepts that are included in each topic or educational experience are proposed. Then choosing the material for the main ideas and concepts. 3. Organizing the content and the learning experiences: After the previous step, the process of organizing the main topics and organizing the ideas and basic concepts within each topic begins. There are several types of organization. For example, the process of organizing the content can be carried out so that it starts from the tangible or concrete to the abstract, or from the simple to the complex, or from the past to the present, and so on, and this What is called logical organization, and it can organize content and educational experiences according to students' needs, tendencies, and abilities, and what is called psychological organization. 4. Suggesting Teaching Methods: Teaching methods are suggested in light of the objectives that have been identified, the content topics, and the method of organizing it. 5. Determining the appropriate evaluation methods: considering all that was done in the previous steps of the construction, so that these methods measure the extent to which students reach the goals. Fourth Step: Curriculum Experimentation The curriculum is not considered in its final form after the design and construction processes unless it has been experimented. Although the designer and constructor of the curriculum follow the scientific method in each of the two operations, but it is difficult to be familiar with all the conditions and problems of the field. Hence, there may be difficulties in applying the curriculum because 16 there are obstacles or inadequacy of some parts of the curriculum for students. And all this may not appear during the design and construction processes. Experimentation is carried out in stages, starting with a few schools in different regions or environments in which the curriculum is tested, and in light of the results of the experiment, the curriculum is modified, then the scope of experimentation is expanded to take place in a larger number of schools, and the curriculum is modified in light of the results of the experiment. ▪ There Are Objectives for The Experimentation Process That Can Be Accomplished in The Following Points: 1. Proving the suitability or inadequacy of the curriculum and parts of it for the students it was developed for. 2. Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum 3. Identify some of the problems and obstacles encountered when applying the curriculum 4. Determine the influence of one or some of the elements of the curriculum on the other elements so that the elements can be modified according to their influence on each other 5. Determining the available capabilities in the field on the ground so that adjustments can be made to the curriculum in light of this, if necessary Despite the importance of experimenting with the curriculum - and even the necessity of that - after its construction, most developing countries rarely resort to experimentation, and if it is conducted, it is done in a superficial and formal manner and thus does not lead to the achievement of its objective Fifth Step: Curriculum Evaluation The process of evaluating the curriculum can be defined as collecting evidence that helps determine the effectiveness of the curriculum, that is, the extent to which this curriculum achieves its objectives. Since the curriculum is based on several basics: the philosophical basics, the social basics, the cultural basics, in addition to the content, teaching methods, teaching aids, activities, and evaluation methods, it is logical when evaluating the curriculum that it is based on these basics and that each of its elements is based on criteria that define What should be each of these elements. The evaluation considering the basics of construction and evaluation of the curriculum elements is called the internal evaluation of the curriculum. Sixth Step: Curriculum Development: The process of designing the national, local, or school curriculum. To produce a quality curriculum, this process should be planned and systematic. It should value the input of stakeholders and cater for sustainability and long-term impact. In contemporary educational practice curriculum development is seen as a 17 comprehensive cycle of development, implementation, evaluation, and revision to ensure that the curriculum is up-to-date and relevant. Curriculum development is the multi-step process of creating and improving a course taught at a school or university. While the exact process will vary from institution to institution, the broad framework includes stages of analysis, building, implementation, and evaluation. Vision Learner`s Revision Needs Evaluation Goals Implementation Content Experimentation Figure 2 Steps of curriculum development What are the Steps of curriculum development? 1. Determine the vision for development 2. Determine learners' needs 3. Determine the goals of development 4. Preparing the Content 5. Experimenting of the developed curriculum 6. Curriculum Implementation 7. Curriculum Evaluation 8. Curriculum Revision 18 ▪ General Concepts Related to The Curriculum 1. The Intended curriculum: A set of formal documents which specify what the relevant national education authorities and society expect that students will learn at school in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, values, and attitudes to be acquired and developed, and how the outcomes of the teaching and learning process will be assessed. It is usually embodied in curriculum framework(s) and guides, syllabi, textbooks, teacher’s guides, content of tests and examinations, regulations, policies and other official documents. Also referred to as the ‘official curriculum’ and the ‘planned curriculum’. 2. Implemented Curriculum: The actual teaching and learning activities taking place in schools through interaction between learners and teachers as well as among learners, e.g. how the intended curriculum is translated into practice and actually delivered. Also defined as the ‘curriculum in action’ or the ‘taught curriculum’. 3. Attained Curriculum: Curriculum which indicates the knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes that learners actually acquire as a result of teaching and learning, assessed through different means and/or demonstrated in practice. It may differ from the intended and the implemented curriculum. 4. Hidden Curriculum: This term has various interpretations and in general it refers to unofficial norms, behaviours and values that teachers teach, and students learn at school, or that are directly/indirectly transferred by the school culture or ethos, and which are not necessarily a product of conscious intention. The hidden curriculum acknowledges that schooling takes place in a broad social and cultural environment that has an influence on learning. Increasingly referred to as ‘school- related factors’. 5. Null Curriculum: (also known as Excluded Curriculum) The Null Curriculum is that which is not taught. Sometimes the teacher ignores some content or skill, deliberately or unknowingly. A teacher may consider some idea unimportant and ignore it. Similarly, teacher may avoid detailed description of some topic for the one or other reason, for example, evolution in Biology. Sometimes also, the learner fails to learn certain knowledge, skills or attitude for various reasons. 19  References 1. Chalk (2022). Creating a Curriculum Map. Retrieved from: https://www.chalk.com/curriculum-mapping-guide/creating-a-curriculum- map/#Types_of_Curriculum_Maps 2. Center for the Advancement of Digital Scholarship (2018). Curriculum Planning. Retrieved from: https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/EDCI702/chapter/module-6- curriculum-planning/ 3. GROWTH. (2022). What Is Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience? https://www.growthengineering.co.uk/what-is-edgar-dales-cone-of-experience/ 4. Lee, S. J., & Reeves, T. C. (2007). Edgar Dale: A significant contributor to the field of educational technology. Educational Technology, 47(6), 56. https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/edgar-dale-and-the-cone-of-experience/ 5. McIlvaine, H. (2022). Curriculum Design. Retrieved from: https://www.wellesley.edu/careereducation/resources/curriculum-design 6. Schweitzer, K. (2020). "Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types." ThoughtCo, Oct. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/curriculum-design-definition-4154176. 7. Skyepack (2020). Curriculum Development: Complete Overview & 6 Steps. Retrieved from: https://www.skyepack.com/post/curriculum-development 8. UNESCO - International Bureau of Education (2022). Curriculum. Retrieved from: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/c/curriculum-plural- curricula 9. Wen Su, S. (2012). The Various Concepts of Curriculum and the Factors Involved in Curricula making. Journal of Language Teaching and Research. DOI: 10.4304/jltr.3.1.153-158 20  Chapter 2 Curriculum system and its elements Prepared by: Dr. Heba Fouad Sayed Fouad Assistant Professor of Science Curricula and Instruction 21  chapter 2 Curriculum system and its elements After completion of the chapter, you should be able to: o Define the Curriculum as a system. o Identify the characteristics of a good curriculum. o List The Elements of Curriculum. o differentiate among aims, goals and objective. o Discuss the Factors affecting the formulation of curriculum objectives. o Indicate Criteria for selecting the content of science curricula. o Explain the Principal of organizing the contents of curriculum o Identify the Criteria for selecting learning experience. o Compere between The Types of Curriculum Evaluation. o Differentiate among measurement, assessment, and evaluation. 22  Chapter 2 Curriculum system and its elements curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint which leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result, authorities have to design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and the learner meet the desired learning outcomes. The curriculum as a system The concept of the modern curriculum is a comprehensive concept that is not only limited to the content or scientific material, but rather is an integrated system consisting of various elements and components: goals, methods, materials and assessments to effectively support instruction and learning. These components interact with each other, and each affects the other. The system is known as “a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole” or “a collection of elements or components that are organized for a common purpose”. The curriculum consists of several sub-systems, such as: the objectives system, the content system, and the evaluation system. The curriculum has characteristics that represent its boundaries that separate its affiliated and non-affiliated elements, such as the management system and the guidance and counseling system. The curriculum also has inputs from the environment, and has processes: design, planning, implementation, evaluation, and development. It has outputs: the changes that occur in students' cognitive, skill, emotional, and social behavior. The curriculum also includes feedback to review, revise and improve the inputs and processes so that the goals for which the system was established are achieved. The curriculum is a sub-system of a larger system, which is the educational system that includes different systems, including: teaching, assessment, activities, guidance, and management, which in turn is a sub-system of larger systems, such as: society, regional and human cultures. 23 Characteristics of a Good Curriculum i The curriculum is continuously evolving to adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern and dynamic community. ii It is based on the needs of the pupils: A good curriculum reflects the needs of the individual and the society as a whole. iii It is democratically conceived: A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a group of individuals from different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The curriculum is the product of many minds and energies. iv The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community. v It has educational quality to helps the learner to become the best that he can possibly be. vi It has administrative flexibility: A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes and development to meet the demands of globalization and the digital age. The Elements of Curriculum The appropriate coordination of elements of curriculum would guarantee the success of a curriculum. There is no consensus among the experts on elements of curriculum, but the four major elements of curriculum are: 1. Aims, Goals and Objectives. 2. Content or Subject Matter. 3. Experience. 4. Curriculum Evaluation. These four basic elements of curriculum are essential and interrelated to each other. Each of these has a connection to one another. Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”; the subject matter/content is “what subject matter is to be included”; the learning experiences is “what instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed”; while curriculum evaluation is “what methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum”. 1- Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives: A) What are aims? ▪ General and broad statements that provide a sense of direction and serve as guiding principles for educational policy; ▪ the translations of the general philosophy and needs of the country; 24 ▪ designed at the national/state level by policy making groups; ▪ based on the constitution of the country Examples of aims: - To prepare students for democratic citizenship; - To develop a moral character and personal discipline; - To strengthen ethical and spiritual values; - To teach the rights and duties of citizenship; - To encourage creative and critical thinking. B) What are goals? ▪ Goal are what we hope to accomplish in academic levels and teaching subject, are medium to long term, are directed to student achievement. ▪ Aims become goals when they become more specific and refer to an education system and to a specific subject area of the curriculum. ▪ Goals translate aims into statements that will describe what schools are expected to accomplish. ▪ Goals are more specific and definite than aims, but they are still non-behavioral and therefore non- observable and non-measurable. The goal of science Curriculum is to teach students to: - Use and interpret science to explain the world around them. - Evaluate and understand scientific theories and evidence. - Investigate and generate scientific explanations. - Participate in scientific debates, ask questions, and adopt a critical stance. - apply the knowledge of science in everyday life through proper use of technology. - solve problems which the learner encounters systematically using the scientific method. C) What are objectives? ▪ Objectives are specific and clear statements about what students will be able to achieved as a result of instruction. ▪ Objectives are stated in observable and measurable terms (outcomes, proficiencies, or competences). ▪ Objectives are behavioral in nature and more precise than goals. ▪ Objectives are sorted as cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Examples of some objectives in science lessons, Students will be able to: - Calculate percent composition given a molecular formula and molecular formula given the percent composition with no mistakes. 25 - Determine the resistivity of iron by measuring the resistance of a specimen of wire with no mistakes. - Explain correctly the difference between solubility and dissociation in water in 3 minutes. - Define Kirchhoff's Voltage Law correctly. - Determine the number of protons in elements and compounds with no mistakes. - Compare between plant cell and animal cell by drawing. - Summarize the differences between plant cell and animal cell clearly. Ideal learning objectives include: The most useful learning outcomes include a verb that describes an observable action, a description of what the learner will be able to do and under which conditions they will be able to do it, and the performance level they should be able to reach. Domains of Learning Objectives: These domains of learning Objectives can be categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge), psychomotor domain (skills) and affective domain (attitudes). This categorization is best explained by the Taxonomy of Learning Domains formulated by a group of researchers led by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. ❖ The cognitive domain: aims to develop the mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge of the individual. Bloom’s domain of learning (higher order skills are on top) ❖ The affective domain: includes feelings, emotions, attitudes, interests, and values that students should possess at the end of instruction. For example, the instructor may want students to choose certain life styles over others, to value individual differences, or to increase interest in a subject area. 26  This domain is rarely addressed; however, it is an important one to consider. Krathwohl et al. (1956) suggest different levels of learning in this domain. Notice that these levels overlap, meaning that learning may cross over between levels. Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Affective Learning ❖ The psychomotor domain: includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: 27  Aims are broad statements which cover all of the experiences provided in the curriculum; goals are tied to specific subjects or group of contents within the curriculum; while objectives describe the more specific outcomes that can be attained as a result of lessons or instruction delivered at the classroom. Factors affecting the formulation of curriculum objectives: All of us agree that the objectives should be formulated on solid philosophical, psychological, sociological and scientific footings. The utility appropriateness, practicability and timeliness of the objectives should always be considered. At the same time, we cannot impose any strict limits to the variety of sources. Society, individual and nature of knowledge can be considered to cover most of the areas, if not all. Religion, Philosophy or life experiences, for example, may also be used as sources of objectives in their own right. These and many such others can either be considered separately or as part of any of the first three major ones (viz. Society, Individual and Nature of Knowledge) mentioned above. i Society: society determines the basic requirements of education. we cannot fail to recognize that objectives of education in the broad sense are determined by society at the local (community) as well as the national level. For instance, there may be such needs as inculcating the democratic values of life and supporting and enhancing the impact of science and technology and other innovations. Social needs are essentially taken into consideration while planning to develop certain competences and qualities in members of society both to develop it (i.e., society) and also to survive in it. ii The learner: there are certain specific needs of the individuals. These needs may be grouped as self- development or self-fulfillment. For example, self- development encompasses physical and psychological growth of the students. Psychological growth in turn consists of thinking (cognitive) feeling/attitudes (affective) and doing (psychomotor) aspects iii The knowledge: Knowledge has its own categories such as facts, processes, basic ideas, concepts, thought systems, etc. Its classification and organization into systems is known as disciplines or subjects. Hence we should know that the nature of knowledge (i.e. subject matter) is one of the most important consideration in formulating educational objectives. This is so because different disciplines (i.e. subjects) have different bearing on the learning process. Therefore, in formulating the objectives, the nature of knowledge should be given due importance. 28  Society is not static, and goes on changing and the individual has to adjust in society. But individual has its individuality. The role of knowledge comes to make the individual adjustable in society without sacrificing his individuality. The nature of knowledge is related to what is good for the society and for the individual. Rather we can say that society and individual both are determinants of the nature of knowledge. Purpose of Educational Aims, Goals and Objectives i Provide direction for the instructional process (by clarifying the intended learning outcomes). ii Convey instructional intent to others (students, parents, academia, and society). iii Provide a basis for assessing students learning (by describing the performance to be measured). 2- Curriculum Content or Subject Matter Curriculum content simply means the totality of what is to be taught in a school system. The content component of teaching learning situation refers to the important facts, principles and concepts to be taught. These contents must be in line with the learning experiences and there must be clear cut objective to be achieved by the end of each respective lesson. It can be in form of knowledge, skills, attitude and values that learners are exposed to. Content involves subject matter drawn on the basis of problems, themes or topics cutting across traditional subjects. One of the important consideration is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind: i Available sources and resources ii Demand of the society iii International needs iv Level and age of the learner or student v Methods of content organization vi Number of courses offered vii Quantity and qualification of teaching staff viii Scope of subject matter ix System of examination x Type of society and culture 29 ▪ Features and characteristics of the science curriculum content - United with the goals and objectives of the basic education curriculum. - Responds to the needs of the learner. - Includes cognitive skill and affective elements. - That is of use to the learners. - That is practical and achievable. - Facts are basic in the structure of cognitive subject matter. But content must go beyond facts. - Working out a process of conceptual understanding means teaching and learning beyond facts. This can be done by the use of the thematic or the integrated approach. - Subject matter content integrates the cognitive, skill, and affective components. - The cognitive content includes facts, concept, principles, hypothesis, theories and laws. - The skill component dwells on thinking skill and manipulative skills. ▪ Criteria for selecting the content of science curricula ✓ Validity: The content of the curriculum is valid if it is meaningful to the learner based on maturity, prior experience, educational and social value and promotes the outcome that it is intended to promote. ✓ Self-sufficiency: This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows them to learn independently. ✓ Significance: The content is significant if it is selected for the developed of learning activities, skills, processes and attitude that will help in solving the problem of the country. It also develops the three domain of learning namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the cultural aspect of the learners particularly. In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum. ✓ Needs and Interests of the Learner: Students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them and the students will be more motivated to engage the curriculum ✓ Learnability: The content should be what the students can learn and should be within their experience. ✓ Consistency with Social Realities: Content must be acceptable to the culture and belief system of the people. Principal of organizing the contents of curriculum: Scope: refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences and organizing threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only to cognitive learning but also affective learning and some would argue spiritual learning. 30  Sequence: refers to the organization of content. The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principal and understanding of human development and learning. Continuity: should be connected to daily living and continued to the next level of learning Integration: learning is more effective when facts and principles from one field can be related another. 3- Learning Experiences (Methods of Delivering Knowledge) The third element is the strategies and methods of teaching or the learning experiences adopted by the teachers during instruction. Tyler defined the term learning experiences as follows: The term “learning experience” is not the same as the content with which a course deals nor the activities performed by the teacher. The term “learning experience” refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he/she can react. Learning takes place through the active behavior of the student. Teaching methods, or methodologies, refer to a set of practices and principles used by teachers to make the process of teaching and learning highly effective for their students. In other words, a teaching method is a series of related and progressive acts performed by the teacher and the learners to accomplish the general and specific objectives of the lesson. These choices support the facilitation of learning experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills. There are many different methodologies that can be utilized by a teacher, and the methods chosen often depend on the educational philosophy and preferences of a teacher. Also Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and interests, task demands, and learning environment. 31  The choice of Teaching methods must facilities the learning experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills. Methods are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress towards meeting the goals. It is not uncommon for a teacher to utilize multiple methods within a single lesson. Factors should keep in mind while selecting a method of teaching: The nature of the learners: In choosing a method of teaching, a teacher must take into account the age, prior knowledge, style of learning and the nature of learners. Class Size plays an important part in selecting a method because some are unsuitable when the group is excessively large or small. For example, discussion method may be effective for a small group but not for too large a group. The Learning Objectives: The specification of learning objectives is important in selecting an appropriate teaching method, for these serve as targets for our teaching. In our schools, we are mainly concerned with knowledge or the cognitive domain for which brainstorming, discussion, lecture method etc. are suitable, while demonstration, project etc. will serve better for practical skills. Teacher’s ability and preference: If the teacher is very competent to the subject matter in which he or she is teaching the class it’s very easier for him or her to choose the best method of teaching such a subject. Time bound: The methods of teaching are actually bounded by the time. So teacher must choose the method of teaching according the time that available for covering of the topic. Availability of teaching and learning aids. 4- learning and teaching activity: A learning and teaching activity enables students to engage with a facilitator to learn the knowledge or skills required to achieve the desired educational outcome. Each activity provides students with opportunities to deepen their learning by applying concepts and articulating new knowledge and many of these activities also provide the instructor feedback about the students’ learn. A learning and teaching activities are a supplement and enrich the learning experiences, encourage new interests among students, make them more aware of community resources, and help them relate their school experiences to real-life. 32  A Science activity might involve an experiment. Which solid dissolves the fastest? What metal is the best conductor of electricity? How does light travel? All these science activities and experiments will do a Fair Test. This aims to make the experiment as accurate and as truthful as possible by looking at different types of variables, such as controlled or dependent. Characteristics of Effective Learning Activities: ▪ Align with course outcomes. ▪ Focus on student learning. ▪ Have a compelling purpose. ▪ Balance content and skill development. ▪ Have clear objectives. ▪ Effectively uses session time. ▪ Accessible for all students. ▪ provide feedback on student progress towards outcomes. ▪ Include a variety of activities that appeal to different learning styles (See, Hear, Read, Do) The benefits of an educational activity: I. Develop collaborative skills II. Students will learn to take risks and build self-confidence III. Students will gain motivation as they prepare ahead of time IV. Improve creative thinking skills V. Makes tech more powerful VI. Students can take greater ownership of their learning VII. improves critical thinking and decision-making skills VIII. promotes real world problem-solving> 5- Teaching/learning materials In the field of education, TLM is a commonly used acronym that stands for "teaching/learning materials." Broadly, the term refers to tool, equipment and materials that teachers use as a supplement in the classroom to support specific learning objectives, as set out in lesson plans. Teaching materials are important catalysts of effective instructions 33  TLM come in many shapes and sizes such as: games, videos, flashcards, project supplies, and more, but they all have in common the ability to support learning. The purpose and importance of teaching and learning materials is to make lessons interesting, learning easy and enable teachers to easily express concepts. Types of teaching/learning materials Audio Aids: these aids use hearing sense. It includes: Cassettes, Radio, Tape-recorder, podcast. Visual aids: these aids use sense of vision. It includes: actual objects, charts, maps, flash cards, pictures, flannel board, flip charts, models, Graphs and Infographics, transparencies. Audio-visual aids: these aids are multi-sensory materials. It includes: Slides, tapes, films, filmstrips, television, video, multimedia Electronic Interactive: Computers, graphing calculators, tablets, online quizzes, e-books. Print: Textbooks, pamphlets, handouts, study guides, manuals What is the Importance of Teaching Aids? Support lesson. Assist learning. Explain concepts and illustrate meanings. Facilitate teachers ‘work by promoting conversation in groups. Save time and effort. Make use of five senses. Arouse interest in the current topic. Characteristics of Good Teaching Aids: ✓ Suitable for the teaching objectives. ✓ Correlate with text material and classwork. ✓ Simplify the learning process. ✓ Be of appropriate size and attractive. ✓ Provide language experience to improve communicative competence· ✓ Motivate pupils to practice language individually, in pairs or groups. ✓ Clear and easy to use, available in classroom or school. 6. Curriculum Evaluation It is a broader term being used to make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is also important in a sense that one could assess whether the aims and objectives have been met or not. It also shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components. The 34 interpretation of evaluation provides the feedback to the curriculum and its components. With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about desirable changes. In one word, Curriculum evaluation refer to “the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process and product of the curriculum”. The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment. In education, the term “evaluation” is used in reference to operations associated with curricula, programs, interventions, methods of teaching and organizational factors. Curriculum evaluation aims to examine the impact of implemented curriculum on student (learning) achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if necessary and to review teaching and learning processes in the classroom. Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation i To determine the outcomes of a program. ii To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a program. iii To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content. iv To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement. v To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques. The Types of Curriculum Evaluation ▪ Diagnostic Evaluation: Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either for placement of students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school), or to discover the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study. ▪ Formative Evaluation: It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the educational program and adapt the curriculum for different learning styles. Methods for formative evaluation may include collecting student reflection papers after lessons, midterm course evaluations or reviewing summaries that the students write on instructional units. ▪ Summative Assessment: It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and done at the end of a course or school year or through standardized assessment testing. Summative evaluations measure curricular success by reviewing the outcomes against benchmark standards. 35 Relationship between Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation Evaluation is the process of making judgments based on criteria and evidence. Assessment: is referred as “a process of collecting evidence and making judgments relating to outcomes” or “a systematic process of documenting and using empirical data to measure knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs”. Measurement: is a quantitative description of one’s performance or a process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something possessed a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristics, or features. For example, Samir has scored 58 marks in a particular examination and Ahmad has scored 59, their individual scores are the measurement of their performance on a particular test. A test or quiz is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine what he or she knows or has learned. Testing measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached. Reference: - AAAS. (1999b.) Resources for Science Literacy: Curriculum Materials Evaluation. New York: Oxford University Press. - Anderson,L.W.,& Krathwohl,D.R.(Eds.).(2001).)A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives ,New York : Longman. - Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1998). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78, (7), 674-681. - Ghonoodi, Alireza & Salimi , Ladan (2011). The study of elements of curriculum in smart schools, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 28, 68–71. - Hudgins, B.B. (1971). The Instructional Processes. Rand and Mc Nally company, Chicago. - Mohammadi, Sahar & Seif Naraghi, Maryam & Shariyatmadari, Ali and Naderi, Ezatollah (2013). The elements of the flexible curriculum planning to propose a national flexible curriculum pattern, European Journal of Experimental Biology, 3(1), 676 - 681 - Nacino, B.R., Oke, F.E. & Brown, D.P. (1992). Curriculum and Instruction; An Introduction to Methods of Teaching. Macmillan Press Limited, London. 36 - National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (1999). Designing Mathematics or Science Curriculum Programs: A Guide for Using Mathematics and Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9658. - Taylor & Francis, Ltd.(1930). The Activities Curriculum, The Journal of Educational Research, 21(1), 49-51. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27524005 - Williams, J. D. (2011). How science works: Teaching and learning in the science classroom, New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group. - Zohrabi, Mohammad(2011). An Investigation of Curriculum Elements for the Enhancement of the Teaching-learning Process, Canadian Center of Science and Education, 1(1), 67-78. - Zohrabi, Mohammad (2008). Researching into curriculum components. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 12(2), 49-69. 37  Chapter 3 Curriculum Construction & Planning Bases Prepared by Dr. Amina Ossama Lecturer of Curricula and Instruction 38  Introduction Bases / foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers. In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum. The four foundations of curriculum include philosophical, cognitive, psychological, and sociocultural impacting education in our past and present-day educational system. Each of the four major foundations has played a significant role in curriculum development, instructional practices and curriculum development. 1- Psychological foundations Psychological foundation is based on everything related to learner like the individual differences, every student has its own unique personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are different in nature so they can’t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some may be fast learner while other slow. Therefore, the curriculum should be based on the above facts, and it should be design to support the capacity and potentialities of all the students. Psychology helps in all the processes above in the development process of the curriculum. In the past curriculum for child development and learning was developed in traditional ways without keeping in view the psychological implication in the development of curriculum. Today psychology is the core and foundation element of all the learning processes; curriculum development, Child mental development, teaching methods, learning theories, administration of education system and planning, character building of the students, attitude of students and teacher, the society, the use of different technologies. 39 From these bases: a) Developmental stage of students Piaget proposes that children progress through an invariant sequence of four stages: sensory motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. Those stages are not arbitrary, but are assumed to reflect qualitative differences in children’s cognitive abilities. Being controlled by the logical structures in the different developmental stages, learners cannot be taught key cognitive tasks if they have not reached a stage of development. Piaget described cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to maturity. The stages can be summarized as follows: 1.sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2). The child progresses from reflex operations and un-differentiated surroundings to complex sensorimotor actions in relation to environmental patterns, comes to realize that objects have permanence (they can be found again), and begins to establish simple relations between similar objects. 2. Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7). Objects and events begin to take on symbolic meaning. For example, a chair is for sitting; clothing is for wearing. The child shows an ability to learn more complex concepts from experience, as long as familiar examples of the concepts are provided. (For example, oranges, apples, and bananas are fruit; the child must have the chance to touch and eat them.) 3. Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 11). The child begins to organize data into logical relationships and gains facility in manipulating data in problem-solving situations. However, this learning situation occurs only if concrete objects are available or the child can draw on experience. The child can make judgments in terms of reversibility and reciprocal relations (for example, left and right are relative to spatial relations) and conservation (a long, narrow glass may hold the same amount of water as a short, wide one). 40 4. Formal operations stage (ages 11 and up). The individual can grasp formal and abstract operations, analyze ideas, comprehend spatial and temporal relationships, think logically about abstract data, evaluate data according to acceptable criteria, formulate hypotheses, deduce possible consequences, and construct theories and reach conclusions without direct experience in the subject. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on the content of learning. Learning depends on the individual’s intellectual potential and environmental experience For example, in n early Childhood Centers and the primary school for instance, play should be used to teach all the areas of the curriculum because children in such stages are very explorative. The curriculum should not be prepared to guide but to facilitate mental construction. b) abilities of the learners affect their readiness to learn: The curriculum content should rhyme with the learner’s level of development. This is because the age and abilities of learners affect learning. The emphasis among developmentalists is to essentially fit the curriculum to the students’ needs and interests as they mature. The curriculum should emphasize personal development; the students’ interests and development should cue the kinds of knowledge a curriculum might offer. curriculum should be planned in accordance to different age groups, corresponding to different age – grade levels. This is because different age groups have unique problems which require that the curriculum is planned to account for both the common problems of all the youth and the specific problems occurring in the lives of individual students. 41 c) Student's needs: Abraham Maslow has been proposing that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. He set forth a classical theory of human needs in order of importance as follows: i) Basic psychological needs – needs necessary to maintain life like food, shelter, sleep and water ii) Safety needs – needs necessary for routine and avoidance of danger iii) Love and belonging needs- those related to affectionate relations with people. iv) Self esteem needs – those related to receiving recognition as a worthwhile person. v) Knowing and understanding needs – those more evident in persons of high intelligence than those of limited intelligence like wanting to learn and organize intellectual relationships. vi) Self actualization needs – those related to becoming the best person one can be, to develop one’s fullest potential. These needs have obvious implications to teaching and learning. A child’s whose basic needs like love or esteem are not met may not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world. The child’s need for love or esteem takes precedence over learning. From Maslow’s perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic. Learners are individuals with diverse needs Curriculum planners and teachers should consider the needs and interests of the learners in the curriculum decision making process. d) Respect individual differences based on developmental stages. Different individuals progress differently in their stages of development. Students should thus not be compared. 42  e) Learning proceeds from simple to complex Developers should consider that learning should be organized in such a way that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter, and therefore the methods of teaching should be introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task. The best way of improving retention in the learning process is to give attention to what is learned initially and to how the learning is organized. f) Students’ prior knowledge which includes preconceptions about how the world works, needs accordingly to be engaged –built upon, or challenged if necessary –in order to develop new learning. Personalized or learner-centered approaches to learning thus place considerable importance on the background, prior knowledge, needs and currents stage of development and potential of each learner. g) Be aware of the strengths and limitations of learners at different stages of development This way the teachers can guide the learners on how to deal with the developmental issues detected. The curriculum should equip students with the knowledge, skills, values and disposition that they will find useful both inside and outside the school. One way of achieving this is by choosing learning experiences that are interesting to students because they allow students to be much more involved in the learning process. Learning experience Learning occurs when the child has an experience that is when he reacts to the situation in which he finds himself. Learning takes place by interaction between the situation & the learner, when any situation acts upon the learner, the learner reacts, he modifies his behavior & this interaction results in learning. Experiencing is simply seeing, hearing, filling, testing, smelling & so on. The individual reacts to these experiences & learning takes place. We learn because things happen to us & we do 43 something in turn. It is only through experience that we learn. Learning will not take place in the absence of any experiences. Every moment a child is learning because of varied experiences he is getting in life. The kind of learning experiences decides the quality of learning. Learning experiences may be defined as "deliberately planned experiences in selected situations where students actively participate, interact and which result in desirable changes of behavior in the students". For learning experience to take place we require three components. These three components are: selected learning situations, learning activities undertaken by concerned students and their interactions. All these together will comprise the learning experience. Learning experiences can simulate real-life situations that learners have encountered or will encounter, providing speedy, targeted, specific feedback on the decisions they make. This creates a high level of engagement, relevancy and information retention. 2- Sociocultural bases Every time there are changes or developments happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to update them to address the society’s needs Issues from society including groups and institutions in the culture and their contribution to education - refers to issues from society that have an influence on curriculum. There are many aspects of the society and cultures that need consideration in curriculum making. The Sociological Foundation refers to issues from society that have an influence on curriculum. Since the school exists within a given society; and the fact that the ‘products’ of the school i.e. the ‘graduates’ go back to the society, makes the latter an inevitable determinant of the curriculum. There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in curriculum making. These include: Changes occurring in societal structures; Transmission of culture; social problems 44 Some societal factors affect curricula planning The family The home is still the main institution affecting the life and growth of the child. The family exerts significant influence on the social, emotional and moral development of the child. His personality and values are affected by the family. In planning any relevant curriculum for the learners, the planner should be familiar with the family and home conditions of the learner. The intellectual climate of the home and attitudes of the parents towards education affects the individual’s behavior and accomplishment in schools. The worship centers: These are public worship centers. where people go to worship God in order to satisfy their spiritual needs, there are other worship centers in the society to satisfy the spiritual needs of the people. Religion itself is a social institution. Although religion is a human is a human society it is not necessarily accepted by everyone and even those who accept religion do not accept it in the same degree. The major role of the church and the mosque is in molding the character of the child and the people in general. Similarly, the church and the mosque are also agencies of intellectual development in the society. Culture: Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. It is the sum of a given society’s way of life molded and shaped by prevailing circumstances and environment Culture is an important factor in curriculum planning and drives the content of every curriculum. This is because the essence of education is to transmit the cultural heritage of a society to the younger generation of the society. Curriculum is a veritable tool for attaining the educational goals of a nation. 45 There are three components of culture. Sociologists have categorized culture into three, namely, universals, specialties and alternatives. The universals of culture are the core of any culture; everything that is generally accepted by all the members of a society. They are the things that bind the society together, promote peace and sustainable development. They are the norms of the society and they are obstinate and difficult to change, for example, language. The importance is seen in its value. Every language develops from a cultural milieu. People’s beliefs and values belong to the universals of culture. These generally accepted behaviors are inculcated to man through enculturation both at home and in the school. The purpose is to produce individuals who are well integrated and interactive and to maintain the culture of that society. The specialties of culture are the different domains of knowledge or discipline in which members of the society are well trained to earn their living and contribute to the development of the society. Members of this group are groomed in the knowledge, skills and ethics of the profession or vocation and they are expected to exhibit these in their practice of the profession. Some examples of the specialties are teachers, medical doctors, lawyers, engineers. Existence of specialties in the society enhances division of labor and thus the sustainable development of the society. The cultural alternatives are different methods, means, designs and ways of doing things that are acceptable by the society. The society recognizes that individuals can make use of their endowments and giftedness to invent things and methods of doing certain things. This is only possible with very intelligent, resourceful and creative people. The inventions are acceptable as far as they do not contravene the ethical, moral or religious standards of the society. 46 Technology: Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century. The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level of learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning experiences among students. 3- Philosophical bases of curriculum At the foundation of every curriculum, there is the educational philosophy of people directly involved in the process of curriculum development. Philosophy is the end and education is the means to achieve the end. Contents of curriculum change to suit the prevalent ideologies and social ways of thinking. So, curriculum is correlated positively to philosophy. Philosophy provides curriculum specialists with a framework for broad issues and tasks in general activities and experiences to stress in classroom and schools. We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational philosophies: the traditional and the modern philosophies. Traditional educational philosophies include perennialism and essentialism; while modern educational philosophies include progressivism and reconstructionism. We are going to focus on : Progressivism Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from pragmatism. Hence all that we discussed earlier about pragmatism holds true for progressivism. 47 Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars in this area include Montessori, Cornelius, and Rousseau. Their studies and research were geared towards identifying the most appropriate type and nature of curriculum for learners. Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as well as social living. The other major emphasis is on a child or learner-centred curriculum. The curriculum therefore is based on the learners’ interests, needs, abilities, and aspirations, among other characteristics of the learners. Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the teaching/learning process, namely: teacher-pupil planning of curriculum activities, flexible curriculum and individualized instruction, and learner-centred teaching and learning methodology Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centred curriculum, which necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum. There is also an emphasis on practical skills. Idealism: For curriculum, idealist concepts come through when people believe that learning is mostly an intellectual process. Teaching connects ideas together when teaching the students. The education is highly structured and one of the best examples of this is the liberal arts education. The humanities are viewed as the most important subjects because these fields deal with ideas. The sciences are lower on the scale because they deal with observation. 4 - Knowledge base of science curriculum: The term content knowledge refers to the body of knowledge and information that teachers teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area, such as English language arts, mathematics, science, or social studies. Content knowledge generally refers to the facts, concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned in specific academic courses, rather than to related skills—such as reading, writing, or researching—that students also learn in school. 48 The science curriculum is organized around three domains: Scientific Knowledge, Skills, and Scientific Attitudes and Values. 1-Scientific Knowledge—This domain encompasses interrelated concepts, facts, rules, and principles associated with biological, chemical, and physical processes, as well as astronomy and technology. 2-Skills—Scientific and critical thinking skills are necessary for inquiry and problem solving in science. Scientific skills are important in scientific investigations, such as conducting experiments and carrying out projects. Enhancing students’ critical thinking potential is one of the objectives of the national education policy, and the curriculum emphasizes critical thinking skills as a foundation for thoughtful learning. 3-Scientific Attitudes and Values—Scientific attitudes and noble values are instilled through experiential learning either spontaneously or through planned activities. Summary Philosophical bases of curriculum At the foundation of every curriculum, there is the educational philosophy of people directly involved in the process of curriculum development. Philosophy is the end and education is the means to achieve that end. Philosophy determines the goal of life and education tries to achieve that goal. The contents of the curriculum change to suit the prevalent ideologies and social ways of thinking. So, the curriculum is positively correlated with the needs and requirements of society. Philosophy provides curriculum specialists with a framework for broad issues and tasks, in general, what experiences and activities to stress in school and classroom. Sociological bases of curriculum Society influences the school curriculum. 49 Every society, community or nation has an essential social obligation to arrange the education of children. Sociological considerations influence curriculum development in following distinct ways:- It provides a way of carrying out changes in the behaviour of the students as per the needs and demands of the society or nation. To make education as an instrument of social changes and progress. To preserve the culture and transmit it to young children. To prepare the learners for the future society. Thus sociological considerations provide necessary guidelines for developing a useful curriculum for the betterment and the progress of society. Psychological bases of curriculum Education is for the child. The child is the centre of the educational process. Through education, efforts are made for bringing desirable changes in the behaviour of the learners. Psychology as a science of behaviour is linked with the process of imparting education. It helps curriculum developers in deciding what content and learning experiences can be included in the curriculum. It provides bases for curriculum development in such a way that curriculum could be developed according to the children in a particular grade and their needs. The psychology of individual differences among children influences the plan and development of the curriculum. So, the curriculum should have enough variety and elasticity to allow individual differences, needs, and interests. So, we can conclude that curriculum development is guided by the ideas put forward by psychologists (Piaget, Erickson, Bruner, etc.) from time to time. Hence curriculum development has sufficient psychological bases. 50 Knowledge base of science curriculum: The term content knowledge refers to the body of knowledge and information that teachers teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area, such as English language arts, mathematics, science, or social studies. Content knowledge generally refers to the facts, concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned in specific academic courses, References: Gabler, I. C., Schroeder, M., & Curtis, D. H. (2003). Constructivist methods for the secondary classroom: Engaged minds. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Henson K. T (2001). Curriculum planning. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Hewitt, T. W., (2006). Understanding and shaping curriculum: What we teach and why. Thousand Oaks: Sage publications Principles of curriculum development (or construction) https://www.slideshare.net/valarpink/bases-of-curriculum https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1448 51  Chapter Four Science Curriculum Designs Prepared by Dr. Sally Kamal Lecturer of Curricula and Instruction 52  Chapter Four Science Curriculum Designs Learning outcomes Los: By the end of this chapter, student will be able to: Mention the designs of science curriculum. Deduce the meaning of separate subjects’ design. Illustrate the characteristics of separate subject curriculum design. Determine the meaning of correlate subjects` design. Compare between separate subjects and correlate subject curriculum designs. Describe the characteristics of broad field curriculum design (interdisciplinary). Mention the advantage and disadvantage of broad field curriculum design. Describe the standards of activity curriculum Illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of activity curriculum Summarize the importance of project curriculum 53  Chapter four Introduction. Curriculum design means planning in excessive detail by asking what exactly you want pupils to know. Both teachers and pupils benefit from this clarity; pupils are clear on what they’re learning, and teachers are clear on what they’re teaching. So, in this chapter we will talk about the important designs for building science curriculum such as subject centered curriculum design which divided into (separate subject design, correlate subject design, and broad field design) , and we will talk about activity curriculum its standards and characteristics, finally project curriculum its importance and characteristics. Subject centered curriculum design. This curriculum design that focuses on the content of curriculum corresponds mostly to textbooks, it aims for excellency in specific subject disciplines content, it has some variations which are focused on individual subjects like Science, Math, History, or specific disciplines, and combination of subject or disciplines (inter- disciplinary). This type of curriculum design is divided into three types of designs which are 54  Subject centered curriculum design Separate Correlated Broad field design subject design subject design disciplinary) 1-Separate subject curriculum design This design focuses on organizing and arranging knowledge according to separate curricula or academic subjects such as Science, history, geography, mathematics, English and others, and this division may be according to grades, or different years of study. The meaning of separate subject design: Separate subject design is “A design which based on learning the details of a subject. And based on the concept of knowledge, organized by the separate disciplines on scholarly fields, corresponded to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as subject specialist’ The characteristics of separate subject design: 1. Separation between academic subjects: the division of knowledge into multiple and specialized sections that enable the learner to become familiar with his cultural and social heritage from various social aspects 55 2. Organizing the knowledge in each subject in a logical order: in this design the arrangement of knowledge must be according to specific foundations, which are the arrangement from easy to difficult, or from simple to complex, and so on. 3. Developed by specialists: It is planned and prepared by specialists without taking into account the opinion of science teacher as an implementer or the learner as a target in the curriculum. 4. The textbook is the only source of knowledge: since it seeks to fill the minds of learners with the largest amount of information, the book represents the only source for knowledge. 5. Evaluation is limited to the cognitive aspect only: the aim of the exams in this design is to measure what has been memorized knowledge without paying attention to the level of development in other aspects of personality. 6. The role of the learner is passive in receiving information: he has no role other than receiving and preserving information. 7. The role of the teacher is limited to conveying, explaining and summarizing the topics, and that he is prepared for this role only. 8. The teaching method used: is the method of reciting the information in the book. 56  9. It neglects the practical skills and focuses on the theoretical knowledge only. 10. There are no educational activities. The advantages of separate subject design: It is the oldest and best-known curriculum design. Based on the concept of knowledge Is organized by the disciplines on scholarly fields of specialized inquiry. the teacher having the active role Easy to deliver because complementary materials are readily available. The disadvantages of separate subject design: it neglects learners' problems, their needs, and the individual differences between them. It adopts the logical sequence of the subject and neglects the psychological aspect of the learner. Separation between the subjects leads to the fragmentation of knowledge, which affects the knowledge structure of the learner and contradicts the principle of integration, and the material loses its value. Focusing on the cognitive aspect and neglecting other aspects of the personality represented by motor skills, feelings and sensations. Since it is set by specialists, the role of teachers is neglected, and their duty is to implement only 57 2-correlated subject curriculum design This design focuses on eliminate the isolation of subjects, and disciplines inked while keeping identities of each Limitations-Will require the teachers to plan their lessons cooperatively-Most class schedules do not allow sufficient block of time for students to meaningfully study correlated subjects The meaning of correlated curriculum design: Correlated curriculum design is “A design which represents an attempt to show the interrelationships between the academic subjects or between the topics they contain, and this link may be between two or more subjects, or between a topic of a particular subject and a topic in another subject” where the chemistry teacher and the biology teacher may agree that they cooperate to explain the topic of animal cell, so biology teacher explains the components of cell and chemistry teacher explains the chemical reactions occurs in living cells and explains the metabolism of these cells. The types of correlation between academic subjects: There are several types of linking between academic subjects, the most important of which are: 1. Cross linkage: Subjects in this type of link remain separate from each other, but leave the freedom to the teacher to show the relationships and linking parts of a subject to another subject without prior