Introduction to Tourism PDF

2  Preface The learning and teaching resource for Senior Secondary Tourism and Hospitality Studies (THS) Curriculum (S4-6) entitled " Introduction to Tourism " is published by the Personal, Social and Humanities Education Section of Curriculum Development Institu...

2  Preface The learning and teaching resource for Senior Secondary Tourism and Hospitality Studies (THS) Curriculum (S4-6) entitled " Introduction to Tourism " is published by the Personal, Social and Humanities Education Section of Curriculum Development Institute, Education Bureau (EDB). It aims to support teachers in implementing the learning and teaching of the Senior Secondary THS Curriculum, and help them understand the features and requirements of the Curriculum. This resource is written in line with Tourism and Hospitality Studies Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6) (2007) (with updates in November 2015) prepared by the Curriculum Development Council, with the objective of enhancing students’ understanding of different aspects of the tourism industry including travel motivations, tourism planning, major sectors of the tourism industry and impact of tourism. In addition, the resource includes activities which deepen students’ understanding and help them to apply the related theories and concepts, as well as facilitating students to develop different generic skills including information- processing skills, creativity and problem- solving skills. No part of the resource may be reproduced in any form for commercial purposes. Schools need not apply for permission to copy this resource in whole or in part for non-profit making educational or research purposes. All other uses should gain prior permission the Education Bureau in writing. Every effort has been made to trace copyright ownership but in the event of accidental infringement, copyright owners are invited to contact us so that we can come to a suitable arrangement. 3 All comments and suggestions related to this resource can be sent to: Personal, Social and Humanities Education Section Curriculum Development Institute Education Bureau Room 1319, 13/F, Wu Chung House, 213 Queen’s Road East Wanchai, Hong Kong or Fax: 2573 5299 / 2575 4318 E-mail: [email protected] 4  Contents 1. Introduction to Tourism 1.1. Travel and Tourism as an Integrated Discipline 8 1.2. Integrated Model of Tourism 9 1.2.1. Key Elements in the Integrated Model of Tourism 10 1.2.2. Factors that Encourage / Prohibit the Development of Tourism 12 1.3. History of Tourism 14 1.4. Careers in the Tourism Sector 16 1.4.1. Job Opportunities 16 1.4.2. Career Development 17 2. The Meaning of 'Travel', 'Tourism' and 'Tourist' 2.1. Concepts and Definitions of ‘Travel’, ‘Tourism’ and ‘Tourist’ 24 2.1.1. Definitions of ‘Travel’, ‘Tourism’ and ‘Excursion’ 24 2.1.2. United Nations World Tourism Organization’s (UNWTO) 27 Definitions of ‘Tourist’ 2.1.3. Trip Purpose 30 2.2. Forms of Travel 32 2.3. Classification of Tourists 40 2.3.1. Cohen’s Classification 40 2.3.2. Plog’s Classification 42 2.4. Tourist’s Codes of Behaviour and Concerned Issues (Risk) 46 2.4.1. Tourist’s Codes of Behaviour 46 2.4.2. Concerned Issues/ Risks While Traveling 47 2.4.3. Tourists with Special Needs 48 3. Travel Motivations and Tourist Flows 3.1. Travel Motivations 54 3.2. Theories of Travel Motivations 58 3.3. The Concept of Tourist Flows 68 5 4. Tourism Products - Attractions and Destination 4.1. Tourism Products 76 4.2. Planning of Tourism Products and Destinations 79 4.2.1. Product Life Cycle and Its Applications in Tourism 79 4.2.2. Role and Importance of Planning in Destination Development 91 4.3. Carrying Capacity 93 5. Different Sectors of the Tourism Industry and Their Roles 5.1. Classification of Sectors and Their Linkages 98 5.2. Private Sectors 100 5.2.1. Hospitality 100 5.2.2. Transportation 101 5.2.3. Intermediates 107 5.2.4. Other Private Sector Facilitators – Travel Related Services 120 5.3. Public Sectors 124 5.3.1. The Major Roles of Government in Tourism Development 124 5.3.2. Government Departments and Public Tourism Organizations 127 Involved in Tourism 5.4. The Case of Hong Kong – The Role and Work of the Hong Kong SAR 134 Government and Key Local Tourism Organizations 5.5. Key International Tourism Organizations 144 6. The Development of Tourism in Hong Kong 6.1. The Development of Tourism in Hong Kong 148 6.1.1. Overview of Tourism 148 6.1.2. Development Blueprint for Hong Kong’s Tourism Industry 150 6.1.3. The Development Plan for the Tourism Sector during the 14 th Five- 152 Year Plan Period, the Outline Development Plan for Guangdong- Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area and the Culture and Tourism Development Plan for the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area 6  6.2. Visitor Profile 159 6.2.1. The Trends of Inbound Tourism Market in Geographic, Demographic, 159 Psychographic and Socio-economic Aspects 6.2.2. Analyzing Tourism Statistics 159 6.3. Tourism Resources in Hong Kong 165 6.3.1. Top 10 Places Visited by Visitors (Primary attractions in HK) 165 6.3.2. Examples of Cultural Attractions in Hong Kong 168 6.3.3. Examples of Natural Attractions in Hong Kong 169 7. The Impacts of Tourism 7.1. The Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism 172 7.1.1. Positive Impacts on the Social and Cultural Aspects 172 7.1.2. Negative Impacts on the Social and Cultural Aspects 174 7.1.3. Measurement of Social and Cultural Impacts 177 7.1.4. Conclusions 179 7.2. The Economic Impacts of Tourism 180 7.2.1. Positive Impacts on the Economy 180 7.2.2. Negative Impacts on the Economy 183 7.2.3. Measurement of Economic Impacts 186 7.2.4. Conclusions 191 7.3. The Environmental Impacts of Tourism 192 7.3.1. Positive Impacts on the Environment 192 7.3.2. Negative Impacts on the Environment 193 7.3.3. Measurement of Environmental Impacts 195 7.3.4. Conclusions 197 7 8  1.1. Travel and Tourism as an Integrated Discipline Tourism embraces nearly all aspects of our society. It is so vast, so complex, and so multifaceted that there is a wide range of subjects related to tourism. Figure 1.1 shows some academic subjects which are related to tourism studies with corresponding examples. Each of these subjects helps us understand this topic better. For example, History and Geography help us understand more about the development of the historical and geographical resources of a tourist destination; Marketing and Business help us understand the promotion and marketing of tourism products; the study of information technology enhances our understanding of the importance of the global distribution system and its effect on tourism business; the study of religion and culture provides information on the cultural resources of a destination and opportunities to develop it as a cultural destination. Figure 1.1 – Integrated Disciplinary Model of Tourism Studies Source: Jafari, J., & Brent Ritchie, J. R. (1981). Toward a framework for tourism education: Problems and prospects. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(1), 13–34. 9  1.2. Integrated Model of Tourism The vast majority of business organizations such as travel agents, meeting planners, and other service providers including accommodation, transportation, attractions and entertainment are related to tourism. These organizations are closely linked in the provision of services to the travellers. Figure 1.2 – Integrated Model of Tourism Source: Cook, R. A., Yale, L. J., & Marqua, J. J. (2001). Tourism: the business of travel (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. 10 1.2.1. Key Elements in the Integrated Model of Tourism Figure 1.2 shows the key elements in the integrated model of tourism. This model summarizes how key tourism stakeholders interact with each other and respond to the changes of the external environment. Detailed descriptions of these elements are provided as follows: 1) Travellers Travellers or tourists are at the center of the model, for without tourists there would be no tourism. Radiating from the center are three large bands containing several interdependent groups of tourism participants and organizations. 2) Tourism Promoters Tourism promoters are in the first layer, for they are in close contact with the travellers. Organizations in this layer include tourism boards, direct marketing companies, meeting planners, traditional and online travel agents, and tour operators. Tourism boards and direct marketing companies provide information and marketing services to travellers whereas travel agencies, tour operators and meeting planners provide services such as making travel arrangements and giving professional advice on tourism related matters. 3) Tourism Service Suppliers Tourism service suppliers, such as airline companies, bus operators, railway corporations, cruise ship operators, hotels and car rental companies, etc. usually provide services to travellers independently. The service suppliers may also collaborate to provide tour packages for travellers by combining the various services such as accommodation, air transportation, etc. 4) External Environment All of the participants, either individually or as a group, are constantly responding to a variety of social/ cultural, political, environmental, economic and technological forces. It is the interaction of these forces that determine how closely the individuals and organizations work together. 11 (i) Social/ Cultural forces Local skill and know how, indigenous cultures of the destination and the attitude of local people towards tourists have a significant impact on the tourist experience. One example of encouraging the local community to take part in tourism is the “Hong Kong Pals” campaign launched by the Hong Kong Tourism Board, in which local residents are encouraged to offer travel advice to tourists from around the world. (ii) Political forces Government support for tourism, development of infrastructure, policy activities, planning, diplomatic relations between tourist generating countries and tourist destination countries, etc. influence the environment for tourism development. Many countries encourage tourism to develop stronger political and trade ties with others. Moreover, political instability may hinder tourism while visa policies can also be changed to increase or limit arrivals. (iii) Environmental forces Problems of pollution and destruction of natural environment caused by excessive urbanization and tourism development may destroy the pleasant ambience of a destination. (iv) Economic forces Disposable income of tourists, the affordability of destinations, changes in exchange rates and concerns over the state of the economy may affect the desire to travel. (v) Technological forces Technological innovations have transformed tourism in many ways. The initial growth of tourism occurred with the development of the railway, while large scale international tourism was made possible by the development of jet airplanes. Today, the use of mobile apps to search for information, make reservations or to purchase tourism products is transforming tourism. Some tourism promoters introduce apps to provide a range of services including direct booking and offering advice. Some even allow tourists to share experiences and inform others or help tourists to move through a destination. In particular, sharing economy apps for accommodation and transportation is changing how people travel. 12 1.2.2. Factors that Encourage / Prohibit the Development of Tourism Changes to the factors identified as part of the external environment in the Integrated Model of Tourism can result in significant positive or negative effects on tourism. Further explanations about their impacts are provided in Table 1.1 below. Factors Descriptions Demographic trends and social changes will have important positive and negative impacts on the future development of the industry. The fact that people are living longer, marrying later and having fewer children indicate the type of tourism products and services needed Social Factors will change in the future. A positive impact of an aging population, for example, is higher demand for cruise and spa experiences, while a negative impact may be less demand for traditional theme parks. Culture is a great tourist attraction, providing the local residents want to share their culture with visitors. Cultural tourism has now become Cultural one of the most popular forms of tourism as destinations can tell Factors their stories to attract people. However, negative impacts of tourists on local cultures have caused some communities to call for restrictions on tourist arrivals. Policies such as investment in tourism related infrastructures, favourable foreign tourism investment policies and openness in travel visas can facilitate the development of a tourist destination. For example, the Individual Visit Scheme (IVS) under the Closer Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) allows residents of designated Mainland cities to visit Hong Kong as independent travellers without joining group tours. It has resulted in more than 15 Political years of tourism growth, new hotel development and new attractions Factors in Hong Kong. In addition, the political stability in a tourist destination can promote the development of the local tourism industry. Conversely, if the political situation in a tourist destination is unstable, it may have a negative impact on its development. For example, the ongoing political instability and terrorist attacks in Egypt as well as the travel advisories for Egypt resulted in the fall of the visitor arrivals from 11.5 million in 2012 to 5.4 million in 2016. 13  Factors Descriptions Whether the global economic environment is healthy or not would affect people’s intentions of travelling to other countries. Travel patterns change significantly during periods of economic growth or decline. During times when the economy is healthy, people take Economic more trips, travel further away and stay longer. When the economy Factors is weak, some people will not travel, while others will take fewer, shorter distance and shorter duration trips. As an example, arrivals from Russia to Hong Kong fell by almost 40% between 2013 and 2016 as a result of the collapse of the Russian Ruble. Greater environmental awareness has affected tourism development in recent years. Green issues such as the development of Environmental ecotourism and green hotels have a positive impact on tourism as Factors most destinations are developing sustainable tourism development practices. Travel and tourism has always been an industry that has made extensive use of new technological equipment. Computerized reservation system (CRS), the use of computers and sophisticated databases for marketing purposes are very common among travel Technological agencies. Increasing competition within the industry force agencies Factors to use new technology to its fullness. Latest developments in transportation make extensive use of new technology, for example the Mainland’s High-speed Rail and the advances in aircraft design help opening up new long-haul destinations. Table 1.1 – Factors that Encourage or Prohibit the Development of Tourism 14  1.3. History of Tourism The history of tourism can be divided into 7 different stages as follow: 1) Roman Empire Period During the Roman Empire period (from about 27 BC to AD 476), travel developed for military, trade and political reasons, as well as for communication of messages from the central government to its distant territories. Travel was also necessary for the artisans and architects “imported” to design and construct the great palaces and tombs. In ancient Greece, people traveled to Olympic Games. Both the participants and spectators required accommodations and food services. Wealthy Romans, in ancient times, traveled to seaside resorts in Greece and Egypt for sightseeing purpose. 2) Middle Age Period During the Middle Age (from about 5th to 15th century), there was a growth of travel for religious reasons. It became an organized phenomenon for pilgrims to visit their “holy land”, such as Muslims to Mecca, and Christians to Jerusalem and Rome. 3) 16th Century In the 16th century, the growth in England’s trade and commerce led to the rise of a new type of tourists - those traveled to broaden their own experience and knowledge. 4) 17th Century In the 17th century, the sons and daughters of the British aristocracy traveled throughout Europe (such as Italy, Germany and France) for periods of time, usually 2 or 3 years, to improve their knowledge. This was known as the Grand Tour, which became a necessary part of the training of future administrators and political leaders. 5) Industrial Revolution Period The Industrial Revolution (from about 18th to 19th century) in Europe created the base for mass tourism. This period turned most people away from basic agriculture into the town / factory and urban way of life. As a result, there was a rapid growth of the wealth and education level of the middle class, as well as an increase of leisure time and a demand for holiday tourism activities. At that time, travel for health became important when the rich and fashionable Europeans began to visit the spa towns (such as Bath 15 in England and Baden - Baden in Germany) and seaside resorts in England (such as Scarborough, Margate and Brighton). 6) 19th to 20th Century Social and technological changes since then have had an immense impact on tourism. Great advances in science and technology made the invention of rapid, safe and relatively cheap forms of transport possible. Railways were invented in the 19th century and passenger aircraft in the 20th century. World War II (AD 1939-1945) was also the impetus for dramatic improvements in communication and air transportation, which made travel much easier today than in earlier times. The development of jet aircraft, and especially the introduction of the first Boeing 747 in 1970 made intercontinental travel affordable for the masses. The rising popularity of the automobile meant people had far more freedom in where they could travel, leading to the development of roadside motels, opening up new destinations and further enabling more people to travel. 7) 21th Century With the rising popularity of the Internet since the late 1990s and early 2000s, the industry has been experiencing various changes that boost the tourism development. It has allowed tourism service suppliers to sell products directly to travellers through the Internet. Travellers can log on to the Internet easily to reach for travel information, book a ticket or hotel room through their personal computer at home. It has also led to the rise of online travel agents (OTAs) that offer thousands of new destinations, tour products and discounted airfares for travellers to choose from. Meanwhile, the growth of social media has provided another platform for the promotion of tourism products in diversifying ways. Besides technological changes, the early 2000s to 2020s also witnessed a number of monumental events and developments that changed travel and tourism. The September 11, 2001 attacks against the United States, commonly referred to as 9/11, brought renewed focus on safety and security, especially at airports and flights, due to the threats of terrorism. In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 as a global pandemic. This event brought international tourism close to a standstill. Going forward, attention on the effects of climate change on society will push travel and tourism developments towards a carbon neutral future. 16  1.4. Careers in the Tourism Sector 1.4.1. Job Opportunities The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) estimates the travel and tourism industries and their associated sectors provide more than 100 million jobs worldwide directly and are indirectly responsible for close to 300 million total jobs. In other words, tourism accounts for one in 10 jobs globally. In Hong Kong, WTTC estimates that tourism directly supported 189,000 jobs or 5.0% of total employment and when indirect or spin-off employment is considered, supported over 559,000 jobs or 14.7% of the total workforce. Besides working in travel agencies, airlines, tour operators, theme parks, events and hotels, students can also have other options such as working in government tourism departments, customs services, airline catering, tourism promotions, sales, etc. Source: WTTC (2017). Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2017 – Hong Kong. World Travel and Tourism Council. The following is a list of some entry positions in the local tourism sectors: Tour and Travel Travel and Lodging Food and Beverage Services Transportation - Tour guide - Airline pilot - Receptionist - Waiter / waitress - Tour escort - Flight attendant - Concierge - Banquet server - Travel consultant - Ground service staff - Housekeeper - Banquet sales - Incentive travel agent - Air traffic controller - Reservation staff manager - Corporate travel agent - Cruise crews, etc. - Recreation instructor - Chef - Travel academy - Bell attendant, etc. - Bartender instructor - Cashier - Meeting planner, etc. - Hostess, etc. Others - Retailing - Public relations - Advertising - Market research - Human resources, etc. Table 1.2 – List of Career Opportunities in the Tourism Sector Source: Colbert, J. (2004). Career opportunities in the travel industry. Ferguson. 17 1.4.2. Career Development The tourism industry offers different career pathways according to the different types of positions available in the market. Examples of three different career pathways are shown as follows: Figure 1.3 – Examples of Career Path in the Tourism Industry Source: Employees Retraining Board (2012). Industry Overview. 18  Activity 1.1 Case Study - Career Opportunities Provided by Travel Industries Flight Attendant Requirements You may have heard that there are all sorts of crazy flight attendant requirements. But are airlines really being that ridiculous when recruiting flight attendants? In Figure 1.4 covers what’s required to become a flight attendant. In addition to these personal requirements, all airlines expect applicants to pass their high-level training programs. Requirements - Minimum age: 18 to 21 years, depending on the airline - Height: 4ft 11in and 6ft 3in, or 150cm and 190cm, tall. - Weight: Just be a “healthy weight” for your height! - Reach: 208cm (on tippy-toes) - Vision: 20/30, with or without corrective measures - Appearance: Clean, neat, conservative - Personality: Independent, patient Figure 1.4 – Requirements to be a flight attendant Source: Louise McGrath, Career Flight Path Questions for Discussion 1. Apart from the requirements listed in Figure 1.4, search from the Internet for more detailed requirements to be a flight attendant in the following aspects: Physical attributes; Physical ability; Appearance; and Personal qualities (including communication skills and personality traits). 19 2. Explain why appearance and personal qualities (including communication skills and personality traits) are keys to getting successfully employed as a flight attendant. 3. Describe the general duties/ work situation of a flight attendant. 4. Apart from flight attendants, what are other positions in the aviation industry? 5. Imagine that you are a high school graduate this year planning to enter the aviation industry. Other than the position of flight attendant, list two other positions that you would like to apply for in this industry and indicate their respective job duties/service nature. 20 Suggested answers: Question 1 - Height: The most common height range is between 4ft 11in and 6ft 3in, or between 150cm and 190cm tall - Reach: Even though your reach is closely related to your height, the height you can reach to is a more accurate and is increasingly becoming “the measurement” for determining your suitability to work inside a cabin. Some airlines have stated they require a reach of Physical 208cm. It’s been said some airlines will allow you to stand on the balls attributes of your feet - Weight: There are no specific numbers regarding the weight requirement. The definition is simply this: your weight must be proportional to your height. A great starting place is to use the calculator to work out your BMI, and if you’re within “normal weight”, you clearly have nothing to worry about - Vision: At least 20/30 vision Being a flight attendant is actually a very physically demanding job, especially when you’ll be doing it back to back for days on without a break. Here’s just a sample of the day-to-day requirements of flight attendants: - Lifting heavy baggage into overhead lockers - Pushing a 200lb service cart up and down the isle Physical - Keeping your balance during the flight, while serving passengers food ability and drink, and through turbulence - Walking for miles through the airports, and not getting lost on your way - Working in tight spaces - Managing to work in a pressurized cabin, with recycled air for extended periods - Managing jet lag/ sleep deprivation - Working extended shifts, in excess of 12 hours - well-groomed - having a neat, unassuming appearance Appearance For example: always polished shoes, always the entire company uniform, always having your shirt tucked in and never having an outrageous hair color 21  - Communication skills:. Be able to communicate effectively in English - Excellent verbal skills: Listening, comprehending and giving instructions - Excellent literacy skills: Reading and writing - Personality Traits:. Be able to work well under pressure, or in stressful situations. Work well in a team. Be flexible Personal. Be patient qualities. Be focused on customer service and customer satisfaction. Be caring and conscientious. Be a problem solver. Be able to multitask effectively. Have a positive attitude. Be confident within themselves, and portray confidence. Be observant and always aware of their surroundings. Have a professional manner. Be punctual. Be safety conscious (Other possible answers) Question 2 Appearance: - The strict grooming regulations can help maintain the branding of the airline and the company standards. Personal qualities: - Flight attendants with good communication skills can listen attentively to the enquiries and requests from the passengers and respond to their enquiries and requests effectively. This is particularly important in emergency situations in which flight attendants are relied upon to give instructions to passengers. - Flight attendants are constantly engaging with passengers. Their personality traits will dictate their actions, attitudes and behaviors and directly affect the service quality. (Other possible answers) 22 Question 3 - Provide information, guidance, and assistance for safety and comfort to passengers on board - Conduct safety check before flight - Greet customers, check their tickets and accompany them to their seats - Prepare and serve drinks and food to passengers - Present emergency equipment and give instructions - Answer passengers’ inquiries and take care of their needs - Monitor and secure the cabin regularly - Assist passengers and cabin crew during emergency situations - Provide special help to passengers with special needs (children, disabled persons, elders etc) - Sell duty-free commodities - Submit analytic reports concerning flight incidents (Source: https://resources. workable.com/flight-attendant-job-description) (Other possible answers) Question 4 - Pilot - Ground crew - Aircraft Maintenance Engineers - Operation Officer, Airfield - Air Traffic Control Officer - Air Traffic Flight Services Officer - Aeronautical Communications Officer Question 5 (Open-ended) 23 24  2.1. Concepts and Definitions of ‘Travel’, ‘Tourism’ and ‘Tourist’ 2.1.1. Definitions of ‘Travel’, ‘Tourism’ and ‘Excursion’ ‘Travel’ and ‘tourism’ have somewhat different meanings. Besides the term ‘tourists’, other terms such as ‘travellers’, ‘excursionists’ and ‘visitors’ are commonly used to describe people traveling to destinations outside their own residences and working places. In facts, there are some variations in the meanings of these terms. 1) Travel and Traveller Travel comprises all journeys from one place to another. It includes all journeys for leisure, work, residence, study or just passing through a country without stopping. A traveller is someone who moves between different geographic locations for any purpose and any duration. 2) Tourism and Tourist (Overnight visitor) Tourism means the temporary short-term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work, as well as their activities during their stay at these destinations. It should be noted that all tourism should have some travel, but not all travel is tourism. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism comprises “the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited”. The term “usual environment” is intended to exclude trips within the area of usual residence and frequent and regular trips between the domicile and the workplace and other community trips of a routine character. According to International Recommendation for Tourism Statistics 2008, a tourist is a person who travels to destinations outside his/her residence and working place, and stays for at least 24 hours but less than a year, for any main purpose (leisure, business or other personal purposes) other than to be employed by a resident entity in the country or place visited. 25 Based on the UNWTO’s definition on tourism, tourism could be categorized as: (a) Domestic Tourism Domestic tourism involves trips made by local residents within their own countries. Example: An American, who lives in New York, takes a business trip to Los Angeles. A domestic tourist is a person who stays at least one night in a collective or private accommodation in the place visited within his/her own country. (b) International Tourism International Tourism involves trips between 2 countries as shown in Figure 2.1. To a certain country, visits by residents of that country to another country is his/her outbound tourism; visits to that country by residents of another country is his/her inbound tourism. An international tourist is a person who visits another country and stays at least one night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited. (i) Inbound Tourism and Inbound Tourist Inbound tourism involves the activities of a person who visits another country. The inbound tourist is the person making the trip. Example: A Canadian tourist travelling to the United States would be considered as a form of inbound tourism from the perspective of the United States. (ii) Outbound Tourism and Outbound Tourist Outbound tourism involves activities of a person who leaves his/her country and travels to another country. Outbound tourists are the people leaving their country. Example: A Canadian tourist travelling to the United States would be considered as a form of outbound tourist from the perspective of Canada. According to Figure 2.1, the tourist leaves Country A (which is a tourist generating country) to Country B (which is a tourist receiving country). From the point of view of Country A, this person is an outbound tourist; but from the point of view of Country B, he/she is an inbound tourist. 26  Tourist generating country Tourist receiving country Country A Country B Outbound tourism Inbound tourism Figure 2.1 – Outbound and Inbound Tourism 3) Excursion and Excursionist (Same-day visitor or day tripper) An excursion is the visit to a destination for less than 24 hours, for leisure, business or other personal purposes, but not for transit those not entering the economic and legal territory. (a) Domestic excursionist A visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the place visited within his/her own country. Example: A Hong Kong resident goes to Shenzhen shopping without staying overnight. Macau sightseeing without staying overnight. (b) International excursionist A visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited. Example: A Canadian resident takes a short trip to the USA without staying overnight. 27 2.1.2. United Nations World Tourism Organization’s (UNWTO) Definitions of ‘Tourist’ The UNWTO has revised the definition of inbound travellers over the years to help clarify the statistical gathering process. The latest version, shown below, was developed in 2008. Figure 2.2 – Classification of Inbound Travellers Source: International recommendations for tourism statistics 2008. (2010). United Nations. How to distinguish between tourists and those who are not considered as tourists? Refer to Figure 2.2. Inbound visitors are classified either as tourists or excursionists; tourists are further classified as nationals residing abroad but visiting the reference country and other non-residents visiting the reference country. All inbound visitors 28 are classified according to the main purpose of trip and the purposes will be further described in Section 2.1.3. But, there is a second group of people who are not classified as tourists. They include: - Border workers Travellers crossing the international (or administrative) border on a regular basis in order to work in a country (or region) different from that of their place of usual residence. An example is people who live in Shenzhen and commute to work in Hong Kong. - Seasonal workers and other short-term workers Travellers employed under a short–term contract to work in a country (or region) other than that of their residence. An example includes seasonal workers in agriculture, construction, hotels, restaurants and other services, as well as other workers. - Nomads and refugees Nomads, by convention, all places they visit are part of their usual environment so that beyond the difficulty in certain cases of determining their country of residence, they are not visitors. Refugees or displaced persons with no place of usual residence, their place of stay is considered to be their usual environment, so they are not visitors either. - Crews on public mode of transport Crews on public mode of transport, either regular or irregular, should be considered as within their usual environment and thus excluded from visitors. Thus, airline crew would be considered as working in their usual environment and would not be considered as ‘tourists’. - Diplomats, military and armed forces on maneuver Diplomats, military personnel of foreign Governments, as well as accompanying or joining dependants are deemed not to enter the economic territory of the country in which they are stationed according to balance of payments principle. As a consequence, they are not counted as tourists to the country in which they are stationed. Armed forces on maneuver should also be excluded in order to be consistent with balance of payments criteria. 29 Some cases are less clear and their classification depends on their length of stay. For example: - Students: Those taking short-term courses (less than one year) are visitors, whereas those taking long-term courses (one year or more) should be considered within their usual environment in their place of study and be excluded from visitors. - Patients: Those staying one year or more should be considered as within their usual environment. Those staying for less than one year on the other hand should be treated as visitors. For more information, please consult: International recommendations for tourism statistics 2008. (2010). United Nations. 30 2.1.3. Trip Purpose Trip purpose is defined as the purpose in the absence of which the trip would not have taken place. In other words, if not for this purpose, the person would not be travelling. When most of us think of tourism, we tend to focus almost exclusively on pleasure travel. But, tourists can travel for a number of reasons. The following shows the nine major trip purposes (in Figure 2.2) identified by the UNWTO, under two categories of personal as well as business and professional: 1) Personal (a) Holidays, leisure and recreation (b) Visiting friends and relatives (c) Education and training (d) Health and medical care (e) Religion/ Pilgrimages (f) Shopping (g) Transit (h) Other 2) Business and professional Not every place adopts these categories. Instead, most surveys, including those used by Hong Kong identify business, vacation, visiting friends and relatives (VFR) and transit as the main choices for survey respondents. An ‘other’ purpose may be included to gather information on other types. (Table 2.3) In reality, most people travel for multiple reasons. They may be travelling on holiday and include a visit with friends and relatives, or combine a business and pleasure trip. Increasingly, government tourism surveys are asking people to identify their main trip purpose and all other secondary reasons. The mix of trip purposes varies according to the market. In fact, more visitors 31 may come to Hong Kong for reasons other than leisure as shown in Table 2.3. Short haul tourists tend to include more pleasure tourists, while those from neighbouring economies (Mainland) tend to include more VFR tourists. Market Source All Mainland Philippines USA Italy Trip Purpose Vacation 61 60 85 47 49 Visiting Friends and 18 21 5 18 11 Relatives Business 13 10 7 22 32 Other 5 7 1 3 3 Table 2.3 - Percent of Overnight Arrivals by Trip Purpose Source: HKTB 2019 32  2.2. Forms of Travel The followings are some common forms of travel based on travellers’ purposes of visiting a destination. 1) Leisure / Holiday Tourism Leisure / Holiday tourism can be undertaken for many reasons. Two popular types are for: relaxation; and sightseeing. (a) Relaxation The destinations for relaxation tourism can offer attractive scenery or sun, sea, sand and lots of activities to keep people busy. Examples of these types of destinations include coast lines, beach resorts, countryside and mountainous regions. Sun, sea and sand Attractive scenery (b) Sightseeing The main reasons for sightseeing tourism are to explore, for self-education and for self-esteem. This kind of tourist takes a lot of photographs. Urban centers are as popular as long touring trips through interesting countryside. 2) Business Tourism Business people buy similar products as do other tourists. They would also spend money on entertainment and recreation while they are at their destinations. The business travellers may travel for various purposes, for example, trade, meeting, incentive travel, convention and exhibition. 33  MICE Meetings – usually refer to corporate meetings Incentive travel – rewards employees for achieving specific goals by sending them on a trip and usually includes an element of meetings or business, along with a pleasure component Conventions – organized by associations and refer to a meeting of people with a common interest who gather together to talk about similar matters, for example, annual or semi-annual meetings of global organizations (such as Kiwanis Club, Apex, etc.), meetings of professional bodies (like medical associations and academic groups), and the like Exhibitions–are activities organized to show new products, services and information to people who have an interest in them, such as potential customers or buyers Characteristics of business tourism: - Business tourists frequently travel to large cities or industrial centres. Places like London, Frankfurt, New York, Tokyo and Hong Kong are important destinations for the business travellers as they are regional centres of commerce. Places like Shenzhen and Dongguan in the Mainland are not normally considered as leisure destinations but are popular with business tourists because of the number of factories they have. - Business travel is relatively price-inelastic. Business people cannot be encouraged to travel more frequently by the offer of lower prices, nor will an increase in price discourage them from traveling. - Business travel is not greatly affected by seasonality. - Business tourists take relatively short but frequent trips. - Business tourists may require different services, such as communication or secretarial service. - Often, as well, business tourists will engage in sightseeing after work if they can fit it into their schedules. - Business travellers expect, and generally receive, a higher standard of service and they are willing to pay more money. For example, many business travellers would choose first-class or business-class flights, and stay at high end hotels. 34 3) Cultural Tourism Cultural tourism is related to the transmission of knowledge and ideas of the destination area or host community. As tourists are curious about different kinds of experiences and cultures in various parts of the world, they travel to learn and experience the culture of a tourist destination. This becomes the prime motivational force for their travel. This kind of tourist likes to visit different types of cultural attractions, ranging from concrete attractions such as museums and monuments, cultural performances to other cultural manifestations, such as the consumption of the way of life of certain cultures. 4) Ecotourism Tourists of this kind enjoy traveling to natural areas. They will minimize their impact on the environment as well as protect the natural resources during their travel. Therefore, ecotourism is characterized as a force for conservation and preservation of nature. For ecotourism, the managing authority of wildlife areas (national parks) will spend most of the income from tourists (entrance fees and donations, etc.) on the conservation work in the area. In some areas, the authority may offer tour guides to educate tourists and modify their behavior so that they will cause less impact on the environment. 5) Study Tourism Students travel to overseas for short or vacation courses offered by learning or training centers such as universities. There is an increasing number of local study tours as well. 6) Religious Pilgrimage People are motivated by their religious beliefs. The demand for this kind of tourism is quite stable. The destinations of religious pilgrimages usually have a long tradition, such as Muslims to Mecca and Christians and Jewish people to Jerusalem. 35 7) Health Tourism Since the development of spas in the 18th century, there have been visitors to centers of medical treatment. The spas in the Mainland and Japan are still popular attractions in some tour programs. 8) Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) Some tourists travel to visit their friends and relatives. It is sometimes said that those visiting their friends or relatives (VFR) are not really tourists at all in the conceptual sense. They do not usually buy accommodation or much food or drink or other services at the destination for they tend to stay at the host’s homes. But they do consume food and beverages from supermarkets used by their hosts, and household consumption of other services (e.g. electricity, water) is increased during their stay. Also, as good hosts, they often treat their guests to a range of sightseeing experiences and visiting attractions they would not normally see. 9) Sports Tourism Many tourists travel for sports. They may: - participate in sports, such as skiing or mountaineering; - watch sports, such as attending the Olympic Games, World Cup Soccer or the International Rugby-Sevens Competition in Hong Kong. Scuba diving Hong Kong Rugby Seven 36  The listing of the above examples can be considered as one classification of tourists based on their reasons of travel. In fact, there are numerous ways in analyzing the travel reasons and motivations of tourists, which will be further introduced and explained in the following chapter. Top Tourist Destinations of the World According to figures compiled by UNWTO, international tourist arrivals have increased from 25 million globally in 1950, to 278 million in 1980, 527 million in 1995, and 1,460 million in 2019 (Table 2.4 and Table 2.5). As shown in the Figure below, arrivals have more than doubled in the last 20 years. Likewise, international tourism receipts earned by destinations worldwide have surged from US$2 billion in 1950 to US$104 billion in 1980, US$415 billion in 1995 and US$1,481 billion in 2019. In 2019, France, Spain, the United States and China continued to top the rankings for international arrivals, while the United States, Spain, France and Thailand led in receipts. International Tourist Arrivals Year Million 2000 673 2005 810 2011 1,003 2015 1,203 2016 1,245 2017 1,333 2018 1,408 2019 1,460 Table 2.4 – International tourist arrivals 37  International Tourist Arrival (million) International Tourism Receipts (USD in 2019 billion) in 2019 International International Rank Destination Rank Destination Tourist Arrival Tourist Arrival 1 France 89.4 (2018) 1 United States 214.1 2 Spain 83.5 2 Spain 79.7 3 United States 79.3 3 France 63.8 4 China 65.7 4 Thailand 60.5 United 5 Italy 64.5 5 52.7 Kingdom 6 Turkey 51.2 6 Italy 49.6 7 Mexico 45.0 7 Japan 46.1 8 Thailand 39.8 8 Australia 45.7 9 Germany 39.6 9 Germany 41.6 United 10 39.4 10 Macao (China) 40.1 Kingdom The world’s top 10 destinations receive The top 10 tourism earners account for 40% of global arrivals. almost 50% of total tourism receipts. Table 2.5 – Top 10 destinations by international tourist arrivals and by international tourism receipts in 2019 Source: UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020. (2020). WTO World Tourism Barometer, 18(7), 1–36. International Tourism Highlights, 2020 Edition. (2021). 38  International Tourism Expenditure Chinese tourists were the biggest spenders, followed by Americans and Germans. (Table 2.6). International Tourism Expenditure (USD billion) in 2019 International Tourism Rank Country Market Share (%) Expenditure 1 China 254.6 17.2 2 United States 152.3 10.3 3 Germany 91.9 6.2 4 United Kingdom 71.1 4.8 5 France 50.2 3.4 6 Australia 36.2 2.5 7 Russian Federation 36.2 2.5 8 Canada 34.8 2.4 Korea (Republic of 9 32.3 2.2 Korea) 10 Italy 30.5 2.1 Table 2.6 – Expenditure by source market Source: UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020. (2020). WTO World Tourism Barometer, 18(7), 1–36. Outbound tourism figures are harder to document because. not all countries record departures;. different countries use different systems. For example, some record all departures, including day trips and overnight departures, others separate overnight from same 39  Hong Kong records all departures and in 2016, reported that 91.7 million Hong Kong residents left the SAR. However, in reality, most of those people took day trips to Shenzhen or Macau. A place like Canada records day and overnight departures and in 2016 reported 53.0 million international departures, of which 31.3 million were overnight departures and 21.7 million were same day excursionists. 40  2.3. Classification of Tourists 2.3.1. Cohen’s Classification Cohen’s classification of tourist is based on the theory that tourism combines the curiosity to seek out new experiences with the need for the security of familiar reminders of home. The idea of the environmental bubbles lies at the heart of Cohen’s classification system. He says tourists travel in search of novelty and change, but only to the point that it becomes non-threatening. If the level of strangeness or change is too great, the tourist will either have a poor experience, will look for alternate tourist experiences or in extreme cases will not travel. The environmental bubble, then is a bubble of familiarity that reduces the level of strangeness in visiting a destination to an acceptable level. It is a ‘safety net’ that reduces risk in order to maximise benefits. For example, hotels provide an environmental bubble in many ways, including: - staff who speak many languages; - provision of foods that suit different nationalities, especially at breakfast; - tour desk services that can help organise day trips with tour guide and offer advice; - in-room security; - television channels from many different countries, enabling people to stay current with local events. Importantly, not everyone can cope with the same level of strangeness, nor does any tourist necessarily want or need an environmental bubble on every trip. Some people are more adventurous than others and seek out destinations that are culturally different. Others can cope with only little change from their home environment and either travel close to home or must envelop themselves in a large environmental bubble if they travel outside of their comfort zone. In the same way, the same person may seek a highly adventurous trip sometimes and then choose the relative ease of joining a package tour with a large environmental bubble on another trip. Which trip is taken depends on his or her motives at the time. Using the idea of the environmental bubble, Cohen identified four types of tourist 41 experiences, depending on how much novelty and strangeness a person wants or can cope with (Table 2.7). These types are: Role Category Characteristic - are dealt with in a routine way by Organized mass tourists the tourist establishments, such as Institutionalized travel agencies, travel companies, tourism hotel chain and other tourism related institutions which cater to Individual mass tourists the tourist trade - are loosely attached to the tourist Explorer establishment; - act as a “spearhead for mass Non-institutionalized tourism” as well as tourism - a “demonstration effect” to the lower Drifter socio-economic groups of the host community Table 2.7– Cohen’s Classification of Tourists Source: Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research 39(1), 164-182. 1) The Organized Mass Tourist The organized mass tourists are the least adventurous and spend most of their time in their comfortable “environmental bubble” throughout their trip. A guided tour in an air-conditioned bus traveling through the countryside is a typical example of the organized mass tourist. The itinerary is decided in advance, and all the attractions and stopping points are well fixed and guided. Tourists have almost no decisions on their trip. 42 2) Individual Mass Tourist This type of tourists is similar to the organized mass tourist, except that the tour is not entirely fixed. The tourist has a certain amount of control over his/her time and itinerary, and is not bound to a group. However, most major arrangements are still made in advance, either with a tour operator or using one of the many travel apps available today. The tour does not bring them much further afield than the organized mass tourists do. They are still confined by their “environmental bubble”. 3) Explorer This type of tourists arranges their trips alone. They try to go somewhere unusual, but still look for comfortable sleeping places and reliable means of transportation. They retain some of the basic routines and comforts of their native way of life. They try to mix with the people they visit and also try to speak their language. The explorers dare to leave their “environmental bubble” more readily than the organized mass tourists and individual mass tourists, but they are still careful about their ventures. 4) Drifter This type of tourists goes further away from the “environmental bubble” and from the accustomed ways of life in their home countries. They keep away from any kind of connection with the tourism establishment, such as hotels and tour coaches. The drifters have no fixed itinerary or timetable. They tend to make their trips wholly on their own, live with the local people and often take odd-jobs to keep themselves going. They try to live the way the locals live, and to share their houses, food, and habits. 2.3.2. Plog’s Classification Stanley Plog proposes a theory that associates the popularity of a destination to the inherent personalities of travellers. Plog suggests that travellers can be classified into 43 the following types based on their different personalities: allocentric, psychocentric and mid-centric. 1) Allocentric Type An allocentric tourist is a person who seeks new experiences and adventure in a variety of activities. This person is outgoing and self-confident in behavior. An allocentric person prefers to fly and to explore new and unusual areas before others do so. Allocentrics enjoy meeting people from foreign or different cultures. They prefer good hotels and food, but not necessarily modern or chain-type hotels. For a tour package, an allocentric would like to have the basics such as transportation and hotels, but not be committed to a structured itinerary. They would rather have the freedom to explore an area, make their own arrangements and choose a variety of activities and tourist attractions. 2) Psychocentric Type Psychocentrics are more conservatively oriented. They tend to be inhibited and non-adventuresome. They prefer to return to familiar travel destinations where they can relax and know what types of food and activity to expect. Psychocentrics prefer to drive to popular destinations, stay in well-established and inexpensive chains as well as eat at family-type restaurants. When arranging a package tour, psychocentrics would prefer a heavily structured itinerary so that they know what to expect. Safety and security are very important to this group. 3) Mid-centric Type There is a large number of people falling between the allocentric and the psychocentric types of tourists. This type of tourists is called mid-centrics. Mid-centric tourists are not particularly adventurous, but they are receptive to new experience providing they have a selection of good hotels, attractions and known restaurants. They prefer independent travel, but will also buy package tours. They are looking for destinations that are fresh and unique and while developed have not become overly tourist. They may also visit well developed destinations with mid-priced family hotels, restaurants and other attractions. 44  Comparisons among the psychocentric, mid-centric and allocentic personalities of travellers are summarized in Table 2.8 below. Psychocentrics Mid-centrics Allocentrics - Seek new experience and - inhibited and non-adventurous - Not particularly adventurous Personalities adventures - safety and security are very important - Open to new experiences - Out-going and self-confident - Prefer familiar travel destinations - Enjoys discovering unusual places in - Prefer “non-tourist” destination and - Like commonplace activities in known destinations few developed tourist attractions destinations - Prefers relaxing and pleasure, and - Enjoy discovering new destinations - Prefer relaxing sun-and-fun spots spending time with friends and family before others have visited them - Prefer low activity level - Open to new or unusual hotel - Prefer high activity level experiences but still with a level of - Prefer simple services, such as Preferred types of - Prefer staying at familiar hotel chain, comfort adequate to good accommodations travel products and dining at restaurants offering cuisine of their home country - Likes to learn about different cultures and food destinations in a controlled environment - Enjoy interacting with people from - Prefer familiar rather than foreign atmospheres - Likes to have some contact with different cultures locals - Prefer tour arrangements that - Prefer purchasing complete tour packages featuring a full schedules - Can do both independent or package include basics (transportation and of activities tours accommodations and allow for considerable flexibility) Table 2.8 - Personality Characteristics of Psychocentric, Mid-centric and Allocentric Source: Plog, S. C. (1974). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55–58. 45 Based on Plog’s theory, tourists can be further divided into five types as follows: Figure 2.9 – Plog’s Classifications of Tourists Near-allocentrics share much in common with allocentrics, but are a little bit more cautious. They like to discover places and have new experiences, but they do not want such extreme vacations. Instead, they like a comfortable bed and eat meals they can trust. Near-psychocentrics tend toward the psychocentric end of the spectrum. They are not particularly adventuresome. When they do travel, it tends to be to familiar places. They do not want surprises by going to a new destination and as such, tend to be repeat visitors. References: Plog, S. (1987). Understanding psychographics in tourism research. In J.R.B. Ritchie and C.R. Goeldner (Ed.), Travel, tourism, and hospitality research: a handbook for managers and researchers. John Wiley and Sons. 46  2.4. Tourist’s Codes of Behaviour and Concerned Issues (Risks) 2.4.1. Tourist’s Codes of Behaviour Based on the “Global Code of Ethics for Tourism” of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourists should take an active role in behaving themselves in order to achieve mutual tolerance and learn about the legitimate differences between peoples, cultures and their diversity. A few major points in making one’s trip an enriching experience are as follows: - Open your mind to other cultures and traditions – it will transform your experience, you will earn respect and be more readily welcomed by local people. Be tolerant and respect diversity – observe social and cultural traditions and practices. - Respect human rights – Exploitation in any form conflicts with the fundamental aims of tourism. The sexual exploitation of children is a crime punishable in the destination or at the offender’s home country. - Help preserve natural environments – Protect wildlife and habitats and do not purchase products made from endangered plants or animals. - Respect cultural resources – Activities should be conducted with respect for the artistic, archaeological and cultural heritage. - Your trip can contribute to economic and social development – Purchase local handicrafts and products to support the local economy using the principles of fair trade. Bargaining for goods should reflect an understanding of a fair wage. - Inform yourself about the destination’s current health situation and access to emergency and consular services prior to departure and be assured that your health and personal security will not be compromised. Make sure that your specific requirements (diet, accessibility, medical care) can be fulfilled before you decide to travel to this destination. - Learn as much as possible about your destination and take time to understand the customs, norms and traditions. Avoid behaviour that could offend the local population. - Familiarize yourself with the laws so that you do not commit any act considered criminal by the law of the country visited. Refrain from all trafficking in illicit drugs, arms, antiques, protected species and products or substances that are dangerous or 47  prohibited by national regulations. Source: UNWTO (2005). The Responsible Tourist and Traveller. 2.4.2. Concerned Issues / Risks While Traveling Safety is a primary concern of a tourist, for the very act of travelling creates some uncertainties and risks. Concerns or risks faced by tourists and how to reduce the risks associated with them include: 1) Potential for Crime - Avoid places where crime rates are high, wars are taking place or where there is threat from terrorists - Know how to contact tourist police or other security personnel - Keep a list of emergency telephone numbers - Find out the location of fire exits in the hotel 2) Personal Security This type of concern involves the possibility of being physically injured, including accidents. Concerns of this type are most common at natural and historic sites, ruins and with adventure travel. - Buy travel insurance in case you have to be evacuated - Test safety equipment and wear it as required - Stay on footpaths and well-marked trails 3) Financial Risk Financial risk comes in many forms ranging from receiving poor value for money, being cheated or losing one’s valuables. - Keep credit or debit cards and cash in separate places - Put valuables in the hotel safe - Take good care of one’s travel documents - Make photocopies of travel documents in case the original is lost - Be aware of touts selling products or services on streets 48  - Always purchase goods from licensed operators - Develop a strong password for mobile devices and keep it secret 4) Health Concern This type of concern relates to the chances of falling ill or catching a disease when travelling. - Bring along needed medicine - Get inoculations against disease if required - Find out whether the destination has a disease outbreak - Find out the sanitation condition in the country (whether it is necessary to bring drinking water) - Avoid strenuous or stressful activity if you have a health concern - Wash uncooked foods carefully before eating them - Be careful with what to eat and drink. Avoid unclean food and water. Visit the Travel Health Service Website of the Hong Kong Department of Health when planning for a trip away from Hong Kong – www.travelhealth.gov.hk 2.4.3. Tourists with Special Needs Some tourists would have special needs while travelling. Sometimes, service providers should cater the special needs of these types of tourists by adjusting the existing services or providing extra ones to them. The types of tourists with special needs include: (1) Senior travellers (2) Religious travellers (3) Pregnant travellers (4) Children and infant travellers (5) People with disabilities Table 2.10 shows some examples of special needs and how tourism businesses provide for different types of tourists with special needs. 49  What would tourism businesses provide to meet the special needs of different types of tourists? (4) Children and infant (5) People with (1) Senior travellers (2) Religious travellers (3) Pregnant travellers travellers disabilities - Senior travellers prefer - Airports and other transport - Airlines will normally - Airlines may provide toys for - Airlines would provide direct flights. hubs provide prayer rooms. accept passengers with them. specialist seating and pregnancies up to 28 wheelchairs for people with - Senior travellers prefer - Staff can show the direction - Airlines may offer meet weeks. A medical certificate mobility disabilities. traveling on coach. of the aircraft to Muslims so and assist service for may be required at check- they can pray to the holy passengers travelling with - People with hearing - Airlines may provide senior in if the person during centre (i.e. Mecca) of their infant when departing from disabilities would advise travelers with wheelchair or pregnancy before 37 weeks. Transport belief. and arriving at the airport. If flight crew making staff to assist them when - Coach may provide priority children fly without adults, announcements to them in boarding and disembarking seating. airlines must provide staff to person. the aircraft. take care of them. - Trains may provide priority - Aircraft and trains may seating. provide priority seating. - Airlines may provide special baby bassinets, diapers and baby food. 50  (4) Children and infant (5) People with (1) Senior travellers (2) Religious travellers (3) Pregnant travellers travellers disabilities - Senior travellers may - Hotels often provide - Pregnant travellers may - Hotels will provide an extra - Hotels may provide request accessible room direction arrows so Muslims prefer accommodation with cot (bed) for children. accessible room and that is located at lower can pray to a holy center of medical services (nearby). wheelchairs for people with floors or near to the their belief. mobility disabilities. elevators. Accommodation - Hotels provide Bible and - Hotels can provide - Hotels may provide senior Koran in most rooms. accessible toilets with roll in travelers with wheelchair or and roll out showers. staff to assist them when - Hotel rooms should have moving in and out of a hotel. a number of visual alert devices to help hearing- impaired travellers recognizing the ring of telephones, alarm clocks, a knock on the door, or a fire alarm, etc. - Senior travellers may - Airlines and restaurants can - Pregnant travellers may - Special children’s meals can - Travellers with medical prefer dining at family-type prepare special meals for request for special meals. be offered on aircraft or at disabilities may request for restaurants or those offering people of different faiths. lower prices in restaurants special meals. cuisine of their home For example, and attractions. Food & Beverages country.. offering Halal food and - Airlines may provide special avoid offering pork and meals for them. alcohol to Muslim;. avoid offering beef to Hindus - Airlines and restaurants have to pay attention to the issue of fasting during the months of Ramadan. 51  (4) Children and infant (5) People with (1) Senior travellers (2) Religious travellers (3) Pregnant travellers travellers disabilities - Senior travellers focus on - Religious travellers may - Pregnant travellers prefer - People travelling with - Barrier-free facilities (e.g. soft adventure, sightseeing prefer visiting places with low activity level such as children may prefer visiting escalator and ramp access Attractions and history and culture. religious values. sightseeing and shopping. theme parks. for people with mobility disabilities; braille signage - Etiquette hints are provided - More time and pre-planning for vision disabilities) could at most religious sites may be required. be provided. advising people how to behave. - Tour operators provide a - Depending on the religion, - Shorter itineraries are - Provide children and - To arrange barrier-free more leisurely itinerary with people of different sexes available for pregnant infants with itineraries that attraction for them and fewer stops, later starting may need to be seated travellers to avoid meet their needs such as provide an experienced- times and multiple night separately. discomfort caused by their playground and theme tour guide. (e.g. Tour guide stays at each destination. travelling. parks. knows sign language). Tour operator - No hidden cost is charged - Choose some less crowded so they know exactly how attractions for pregnant much the trip will cost. travellers to avoid collision with others. Table 2.10 – Tourists with special needs 52  3.1. Travel Motivations 1) Definition of “Motivation” A motivation is a wish that prompts people to take action, work hard to achieve a goal, and satisfy a certain kind of need. For example, when a person is hungry and there is a need to appease his or her hunger, a motivation to search for food is formed. Therefore, people’s activities of all kinds are driven by their motivations, and they govern people’s actions. Travel motivations help explain the following questions: - Why do we go travelling? - Why do we choose to travel to a certain place? - Why do we participate in a certain travel activity? These are essential questions about tourists’ travel motivations. Travel motivations directly spur people’s travel activities. 2) The Motivations Process Travellers are motivated to satisfy a need, and they have a perception of what will satisfy their need. At the same time, travellers have a perception of the attractions of the destination and whether the attractions satisfy their needs. If the two are compatible, travellers are motivated to visit that destination. Figure 3.1 – The Motivations Process Source: Holloway, J. C., & Humphreys, C. (2016). The business of tourism (Tenth edition.). Pearson Education Limited. 55 3) Travel Motivations to Travel Decisions In general, the travel need of a person will lead to the formation of a travel motivation and further result in a travel action. However, in real life, the process from the formation of a travel motivation to the occurrence of an actual travel action is a complex one. Travel motivation influences people’s travel behavior in three ways: Travel motivation can initiate people’s travel behavior. For example, people will plan to travel if they want to release stress. Travel motivation limits travel behavior. For example, people will prefer sun, sand and sea destination if they want to escape the cold. Changes in travel motivation will have impacts on tourism behavior. For example, some people preferred adventure travel when they were young. However when they get older, they may prefer leisure travel activities instead. 4) Factors that Influence Travel Motivations The following shows some factors influencing one’s travel motivations and decisions: Income Travel is a kind of consumer behaviour, the ability to pay the various types of charges involved is of course necessary. When a person’s income can only support his or her basic living needs, he or she will not form a motivation to go travelling. Spare Time Spare time refers to the time that people can freely allocate to taking part in pastimes and entertainment or anything else they enjoy participating in after their daily work, study, living and other compulsory time commitments. Travel necessarily takes up a certain amount of time, and if a person cannot get away from official business and has no spare time to freely allocate and set aside for his or her own pastimes, he or she cannot go travelling. Therefore, spare time is an important condition for the realization of travel activities. Leisure time varies at different stages of life. For example, elderly may have more free time. 56  Sex, Age and Physical Condition The results of McGehee et al. (1996) indicated that females have stronger push motivation for cultural learning, prestige, family and kinship bonding, while males have stronger push motivation for sports participation and adventure seeking. In terms of age, the study conducted by Luo and Deng (2008) on Chinese tourists showed that a negative relationship exists between age and the motivation of novelty seeking, indicating that younger tourists tend to seek novelty more. Physical condition is also an important factor that influences travel psychology. For example, older people are limited by factors such as health and lack of strength. They will generally have a relatively large number of requirements relating to the travel destination, travel resources and the travel environment. Psychological Factors Travel motivations are a form of individual psychological activity, and are inevitably influenced by various aspects such as individual interests, hobbies, profession, attitude to life, understanding of the surrounding environment and level of education. Overall Development of the Tourism Industry It is only when the economy of a country or region is developed that it will have enough resources to improve and construct travel facilities, develop tourist attractions and promote transport development. Road transport facilities, accommodation, catering, and service standards at a destination are important factors in the tourists’ choice of destination, and also affect their formation of travel motivations to a large degree, especially for tourists with relatively high hospitality expectations. Group, Family and Social Atmosphere Group or social pressure can also influence people’s travel motivations. For example, travel activities organized by enterprises, or travel awards, etc. encourage people to form their own travel motivations involuntarily, and travel activities subsequently take place. Social surroundings can also influence people’s travel motivations. Colleagues’, friends’ and relatives’ travel behaviour and travel experiences can always influence others, or lead to the formation of a comparative psychology, making people form 57  identical travel motivations, and leading to the formation of a kind of imitative travel behaviour. World Situation The geopolitical instability and terrorist attacks will affect the local tourism image and reduce the number of tourists visiting. In addition, the spread of the global epidemic will affect the desire to travel, hindering tourism activities and reducing tourists flow between countries. Cultural Difference Whether the tourist destination is the same as the tourist's own culture will also affect their choices of destinations. 58  3.2. Theories of Travel Motivations Different views about the concepts of travel motivations have been suggested by various scholars. Some examples are shown as below: 1) Maslow – “Hierarchy of Needs” Maslow (1971) distinguished five different levels of psychological needs ranging from physiological needs to self-actualization. According to his theory, satisfaction of people’s basic needs is a prerequisite for the satisfaction of the higher needs (Figure 3.2). Maslow argues that all behaviour is motivated by psychological needs, for behaviour serves to fulfill those needs. Figure 3.2 – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological needs These are needs required by humans to sustain their existence and prolong their lives, and are the minimum basic needs, including needs relating to food, water, oxygen, sleep, a place to live and warmth, as well as clothing, food, shelter, mobility, sex and other psychological functions. If these needs cannot be fulfilled, human existence becomes a problem. Safety needs These are needs that represent human desires to protect their own bodies and minds from injury, and to guarantee safety and stability. For example, needs relating to health, a safe and orderly environment, a stable career and the avoidance of unforeseen accidents. When a person’s physiological needs have been fulfilled, he or she will want to fulfill such safety needs. 59 Belongingness and love needs/ Social needs Belongingness and love needs/ social needs include the need for love and a sense of belonging. The need for love refers to the fact that people all hope to achieve harmonious relationships with friends and colleagues or to maintain friendships; everyone wants to love others and be loved. In addition, the need for a sense of belonging refers to the fact that people all want to have a sense of belonging, and want to gain the acceptance of a certain group and to be included and valued by it, as well as for its members to care for and look after each other. Esteem needs These are human desires to gain other people’s respect, a satisfactory status, due human rights, reputation and prestige, and to realize a certain social position. Self-actualization needs These are human desires for the needs to give full play to one’s own potential and to realize one’s own ideals and aspirations, including the seeking of knowledge, the appreciation of beauty, creativity, achievements, etc. Maslow considered self- realization to be mankind’s highest level of needs, which signify a full, enthusiastic, wholehearted experience of life. - Interpretation of Maslow's Theory in the context of Tourism Activity Physiological To fulfill the physiological needs of travellers, tour operators may designate frequent rest stops in the tour itinerary. The food and beverage outlets are located in easily accessible areas. Motels are designed along highways to provide shelter for travellers using automobile as their means of transport. Safety To satisfy the safety needs of the travellers, tour operators provide guided services for exotic or unfamiliar locations. Also travellers tend to prefer making reservations or travel arrangements through government approval agencies or services. 60 Belongingness and love/Social Airlines, hotels, restaurants usually provide frequent-user programs to fulfill the belonging and love needs of travellers. As members of these organizations, travellers develop a sense of belonging towards these organizations. Travelle