Critical Thinking Chapter 3.pdf

Critical Thinking Chapter 3 Daniele Mezzadri Brent Madison Simon Langford Chapter 3 The Analysis of Arguments 1. Arguments 2. Argument Indicators 3. Arguments with no Indicators 4. Argument Structure S ECTION 1 B...

Critical Thinking Chapter 3 Daniele Mezzadri Brent Madison Simon Langford Chapter 3 The Analysis of Arguments 1. Arguments 2. Argument Indicators 3. Arguments with no Indicators 4. Argument Structure S ECTION 1 But what is an argument? What form does it take? We saw that presenting an argument means to give reasons Arguments for a conclusion. An argument is a set of claims, some of which work as reasons for supporting a conclusion, We do many things when we reason, for example, we and one of them is the conclusion of the argument. In describe things, give summaries, give explanations, re- logical and critical thinking jargon, the reasons support- port events, tell stories, jokes, make promises, and so ing a conclusions are called ‘premises’ (or ‘reasons’ or forth. In previous chapters we discussed some of these ‘assumptions’); ‘premises’ and the ‘conclusion’, in turn, things, focusing of explanations, descriptions, illustra- are called ‘claims’: a claim is the affirmative content of tions. a declarative sentence. With this in mind, we can say that an argument is: We also learnt to distin- guish those purposes of reasoning from that of pre- A set of claims (at least) one of which is a con- senting an argument. This clusion and the remainder are premises (rea- is indeed very common. sons), intended to support the conclusion. We very often try to per- What is a claim? suade or convince people of our point of view, by pre- A claim is what is expressed by a sentence by means of senting to them reasons which we say something about the world, something for accepting our conclu- which is either true or false. A claim is expressed by a sion, or to judge and evaluate other people’s points of declarative sentence, or a statement, or an asser- views and opinions (by evaluating the reasons that sup- tion. port their conclusion). This is what is called ‘arguing a Not all sentences of language are declarative, as state- case’, or ‘presenting an argument’. A crucial compo- ments are. Sometimes we do other things with lan- nent of critical thinking is precisely to identify, con- struct, and evaluate arguments. 2 guage than making statements. Can you think of any ex- It is vital for our developing critical thinking skills ample? (skills for analyzing and evaluating arguments) to get clear on which claims in an argument work as prem- ises (reasons) and which of them is the conclusion. Premises and the conclusion have different functions Exercise 1: Which of the following sentences are claims, and which are not claims? in an argument. The conclusion is the position de- fended, the premises are the reasons given to support Question 1 of 10 the conclusion. The sun is shining. An argument might have many different premises, that is, many different reasons which are supposed to sup- port its conclusion; schematically, an argument takes the following form: A. Claim Premise 1 B. Not a claim Premise 2 Premise 3.... Check Answer Premise n ________ Questions, commands, expressions of wishes, interjec- tions or exclamations are typically not claims. Conclusion 3 An example: This argument, thus, conforms to the schema we pre- sented earlier on page 3: Philosophy is both challenging and interesting. Fatima is always saying that she wants a major that is not only interesting, but also challenging. So, Claim 1 is Premise 1 Fatima ought to major in philosophy. Claim 2 is Premise 2 Claim 3 is the Conclusion This is an argument that tries to persuade or convince the reader that Fatima should major in philosophy. That schema, however, might be misleading, because it What are the claims/statements in this arguments? encourages one to think that the conclusion of an argu- ment is always the last claim of the argument. In fact, Claim 1: Philosophy is both challenging and interest- this is often not the case. One can present a conclusion ing. first and then give reasons (premises) for that conclu- Claim 2: Fatima is always saying that she wants a ma- sion; in that case, the conclusion of the argument will jor that is not only interesting, but also challenging. be the first claim of the argument and the premises will come afterwards. Also, although less commonly, the Claim 3: Fatima ought to major in philosophy. conclusion can be found in the middle of the argument. The last claim (claim 3) is the conclusion of the argu- ment (what the argument tries to convince one of) while the other claims (claim 1 and 2) are the premises In order to be able to distinguish premises and a conclu- of the argument, namely the reasons supporting the sion, one should look at the role played by them in an conclusion. argument, and not at their positions in the argument. So, in order to identify the conclusion of an argument, think about what the author tries to convince their audi- 4 ence of, and in order to identify their premises, think of the reasons brought forward for the conclusion. 3 Al Ain has a number of historic sites of interna- Exercise 2 tional significance. Also, it is cheaper than rival cities Abu Dhabi and Dubai. So, Al Ain should Consider the following examples of argument: be a more popular tourist destination than it Which is the conclusion of the argument? currently is. In addition, the weather is much Which are the premises? less humid than those coastal cities. 1 4 If exams are too easy, students will perform well but won’t learn the skills that they need to learn. Learn- ing skills, and not just getting good Shamma deserves a very good grade. She has grades, should be the goal of univer- performed very well in many quizzes during sity educations. So exams should the semester; plus she always came to class on not be too easy. time and took an active role in class. 2 Fatima has a natural talent for acting. Plus, A college education increases your earn- 5 when people do what they love, they usually ing potential. In addition, it makes you have greater job satisfaction. Fatima also has aware of interests you didn’t know you a real passion for acting. It’s for these reasons had. Most important, it teaches the that Fatima should become an actor. value of knowledge. So, college educa- tion is worth pursuing. 5 S ECTION 2 reached on the basis of some reasons/ premises? Argument Indicators We have seen that in order to identify the component Shamma is crying. So, she must be very sad. parts of an argument (that is, its conclusion and its premises), one should look at the role played by the claims of the argument. However, there are also certain It is clear that the word that indicates the conclusion of words or expressions that usually (but not always!) the argument in the example above is ‘so’. Of course help us in identifying the component part of an argu- there are many other words in English that are gener- ment. ally used to introduce the conclusion of an argument. These expressions are called argument indicators, Words that indicate the conclusion in an argument are because they signal the fact that an argument (with called conclusion indicators. premises/reasons and a conclusion) has been ad- These include: vanced. These are linguistic clues that help us grasp whether an argument is present. We divide argument So indicators into premise indicators and conclusion Therefore indicators. Hence Exercise 3 Thus Consider the example of argument in the blue box: Which word in it indicates that an argu- Then ment has been presented? That is, which word Consequently in it indicates that a conclusion has been It follows that 6 That/This is why indicators (or premise indicators) and they in- clude such words as: Accordingly Because Which proves/establishes/shows that Since From which we can infer that For Because of this As Implies that For one thing/for another As a result Given that and others. The reasons are However, be very careful. Not always does the occur- rence of these words indicate that a conclusion has After all been reached, and, more importantly, arguments can Follows from that fact that be presented even without the use of these words. We will consider a few examples later. However, these firstly….secondly...thirdly words are often used to present the conclusion of an ar- Is implied by gument, and this is the reason why they are commonly called conclusion indicators. They indicate the pres- Is established by ence of a conclusion, for which reasons have been pre- as shown by sented. considering that We not only have in English words that characteristi- cally indicate the presence of a conclusion, we also and others. have words that we commonly use to indicate the pres- ence of reasons (or premises), These are called reason 7 Exercise 4 Exercise 6 The lists of argument indicators above is not ex- Consider the following examples of arguments; haustive (namely, there can be others). Can you first identify the claims in them, and identify think of any argument indicators (either prem- which words, if any, are argument indicators; ise or conclusion indicators) not included in also say which are ‘reason/premise indicators’ the lists above? and which are ‘conclusion indicators’. Finally, identify the premises and the conclusion of the arguments. Exercise 5 1. During the football game he committed a serious Rewrite the argument in the blue box on page 6 foul, so he deserved to be sent off. by replacing the argument indicator in it (‘so’) 2. I’m probably going to be late because I am in a traffic with each of the following (not all at once) jam. (You’ll need to modify the argument a bit when using the new indicators) 3. Bill will pay the ransom. After all, he loves his wife and children and would do everything to save them. Because 4. Students should not pay any tuition fees for higher education, because a well educated population bene- The reason is fits the country and the country should be prepared to pay for those benefits. Since 5. Studying critical thinking can help you clarify your thinking and make better choices in belief and ac- tion. This shows that everyone should study critical thinking. 8 6. Many substantial environmental problems cannot be 11.The patient’s fever and cough are getting worse. The solved by individual or local action. Given that these therapy the doctor prescribed, therefore, is not very problems are world-wide problems, it follows that effective. they can only be addressed by international action. 12.Given the intensity of the sun, the UV levels are ex- 7. If Al Nasr win against Ajman Club, Al Ain will go to tremely high in the UAE. High levels of UV can be the top of the league. Since Al Nasr have beaten harmful, causing skin cancer as well as genetic muta- Ajman Club, Al Ain will be top of the league. tions. Therefore, it’s important for UAE residents who spend a lot of time outdoors to wear hats and 8. Takeaway food is cheap, but it is not always nutri- sunscreen when exposed to the sun for more than a tious. On the other hand, cooking for oneself is more few minutes. time consuming, but one can ensure that all the ma- jor food groups are covered. Thus, if one cares more 13. After all that physical activity you must be very de- about one’s health than convenience, then one hydrated and tired. So, I suggest you drink a lot of should try to cook for oneself as much as possible. water and go to bed. 9. We should increase the minimum wage of workers. 14. If it’s Friday morning then many shops will be After all, they’re human beings and deserve to be closed. So, you should avoid going shopping then. paid fairly. Also, by spending more, they would con- Exercise 7 tribute to the growth of the national economy. Produce one argument of your own, by support- 10.In the next few years, more and more people will ing your conclusion with reasons and using ar- turn to solar energy, especially in the Middle East, be- gument indicators. cause oil will finish soon, and is likely to become very expensive for most consumers as well. Solar energy, on the other hand, will never finish and is cheap to exploit. 9 Answers to exercise 6 10 S ECTION 3 Here the conclusion of the argument is that “it is a Arguments with No good picture”, while its premises are that “the colours create a powerful effect of a sunset, which is pleasant to Indicators look at”, and that “The figures are interesting and very well drawn”. The conclusion of the argument, however, is not introduced by any conclusion indicator. How- In the previous section we saw that some words or ex- ever, the author of the argument could have just as well pressions are typically used to indicate that a conclu- presented it by saying: sion of an argument, or that reasons supporting a con- clusion, are put forward. We called these words argu- The colours create a powerful effect of a sunset, ment indicators, and we distinguished between conclu- which is pleasant to look at. The figures are inter- sion indicators and reason/premise indicators. esting and very well drawn. Therefore, it is a good picture. Again, it would be mistaken to think that in arguments these words are always present. Sometimes arguments are presented without the use of any argument indica- tors. Here is another example: Let’s consider the following example The test was unfair. I studied for days, reading the material many times, underlining important The colours create a powerful effect of a sunset, details and then studying them. After doing all which is pleasant to look at. The figures are interest- this, I should have got a good grade, but I ing and very well drawn. It is a good picture. didn’t. 11 Again, in this argument there are no conclusion indica- The ‘Therefore’ Test tors or premise indicators, but it is clear that the conclu- When you are unclear about whether a claim in an argu- sion of the argument is that the test was unfair, and ment works as a premise or as the conclusion of the ar- that this is supported by the reason that “I studied for gument, try inserting “therefore” (a “conclusion indica- days, reading the material many times, underlining im- tor”) before it, and consider whether the results makes portant details and then studying them” and that “After sense at all. For example, consider one of our argu- doing all this, I should have got a good grade, but I ments above: didn’t”. There are many different ways in which this ar- gument can be rephrased so that it contains argument indicators. The most straightforward is probably the fol- The test was unfair. I studied for days, reading lowing: the material many times, underlining important details and then studying them. After doing all this, I should have got a good grade, but I didn’t. I studied for days, reading the material many times, underlining important details and then Does it make sense, for instance, to stick “therefore” af- studying them. After doing all this, I should have got a good grade, but I didn’t. So/therefore/thus, ter the first claim, so that you have this: the test was unfair. The test was unfair. Therefore I stud- ied for days, reading the material many times, underlining important details Exercise 6 and then studying them. After doing all Can you think of other ways in which the argu- this, I should have got a good grade, but I didn’t. ment in the blue box on the last page can be re- phrased so that it contains argument indica- tors? 12 The answer is clearly ‘no’. This shows that “I studied When you analyse arguments, think of which claims for days, reading the material many times, underlining function as premises and which as the conclusion; important details and then studying them” cannot be don’t be misled by the superficial structure of the argu- the conclusion of the argument. How about this? ment (the conclusion might or might not be the first claim in it) nor by the absence of ‘argument indicators’. The test was unfair. I studied for If uncertain about which of the claims of the argument days, reading the material many are the premises and which is the conclusion, apply the times, underlining important details therefore test. and then studying them. Therefore, after doing all this, I should have Exercise 8 got a good grade, but I didn’t. Consider the following examples of arguments without any argument indicators; first, identify the claims in them, and then identify the prem- ises and the conclusion of the arguments (you This perhaps sounds a little better, but still does not can do the ‘therefore test’). make much sense. It is clear that the best place where ‘therefore’ should go is before “the test was unfair”, be- 1. Certain areas of big European cities are unsafe. Trav- cause this is the conclusion of the argument. elers should pay extra attention and be careful. 2. You shouldn’t insult people. It’s wrong. I studied for days, reading the mate- 3. Ahmed does not deserve an A. He has failed too rial many times, underlining impor- tant details and then studying them. many quizzes during the semester. After doing all this, I should have got a 4. All drugs which enhance performance should be good grade, but I didn’t. Therefore, the test was unfair. banned from sport; they confer an unfair advantage on those who take them. And in a sport competition 13  no athlete should have an unfair advantage over oth- ers. 5. It is good for young people to learn a foreign lan- guage. Learning a foreign language would help them Exercise 8 Answers to know and understand a foreign culture, and this would enrich them as human beings. It would also help them to acquire thinking skills that can be use- ful in many circumstances. 6. International students at UAEU are few compared to National students; but having a significant interna- tional student population is essential to improve in the major University Rankings. And UAEU is cer- tainly committed to improving its position in the Uni- versity Rankings. UAEU should do more to increase the number of its international students. 7. It is essential to wear a hat when crossing the cam- pus. The sun in UAE is very strong, especially in the summer, and if you don’t cover your head you run the risk of sunstroke. 8. Reading is the best pastime. It is very relaxing. It stimulates your imagination. It can also enrich your vocabulary and thinking skills. 14 S ECTION 4 Argument Structure Bill will pay the ransom. After all, he would do everything to save them. Patterns of Reasoning (different kinds of argu- ments) Another one is the following: Arguments, although they are invariably sets of claims Students only succeed in their with premises and a conclusion, may have different classes if they enjoy them. So, structures, different shapes. In this section we will con- if we want students to suc- sider different structures of arguments. ceed, we need to make classes enjoyable and fun. The Simplest Case: Consider this example: The arguments above have one premise that supports the conclusion. We can highlight the common structure of these arguments by means of the following diagram: During the football game he committed a se- rious foul, so he deserved to be sent off. Premise P The conclusion of this argument is that “he deserved to be sent off”. In this argument, only one premise is put forward to support the conclusion, the reason that “dur- ing the football game he committed a serious foul”. Conclusion C A similar example is this: 15 Side-by-Side Reasons (or Independent Rea- goes some way in supporting the conclusion, whereas sons) the premises do not support one another, and are not necessarily related to one another. The arguments above are very simple, because they are single-premise arguments. But generally arguments The side-by-side structure of the argument above can are more complex than that, because we often give be represented by the following diagram: more than one premise to support our conclusion. An example of this is the following: P1 P2 The Gulf region needs a rail network for the transportation of passengers and goods as soon as possible, because the current road and air network cannot deliver everything that the Gulf’s fast growth demands. An- other reason is that the train is much greener than oil-based ways of transporta- C tion such as planes and trucks. Each of the two premises (P1 and P2) independently Here the conclusion (C) is that the Gulf region needs a support the conclusion. rail network for transportation of passengers and Obviously a side-by-side argument can have more than goods soon and the premises (reasons) are that the cur- two premises. rent network cannot keep up with the region’s growth (P1), and further that the train is more environmentally Exercise 9 friendly than current ways of transportation (P2). For each of the following arguments, 1) identify The important thing to notice here is that these two rea- the claims in them, 2) identify their premises sons are independent of one another. Each of them and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator words 16 (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the argu- Exercise 9 Answers ment, showing if the argument has a simplest case or a side-by-side structure. 1. All students should receive basic first-aid training. For one thing, this training could save a life during an emergency. For another, first-aid skills are sought after by many employers in popular industries, such as the travel and tourism sector. Also, learning a new set of skills, like first-aid, can give a real sense of accomplishment. 2. Visa requirements for the USA have recently changed. Visitors going to the USA, therefore, should check with their embassies to see if visas are now re- quired. 3. Everybody should have some sort of hobby. Having a hobby can relieve stress and take one’s mind off of work. 4. Lulu is the closest supermarket to where Ali lives. It also has some of the lowest prices in town. In addi- tion, Lulu offers the widest selection of fresh pro- duce. Lulu is clearly a good supermarket for Ali to consider. 17 Premises that Have to be Taken Together (Joint provides support to the conclusion. The fact that the Premises) bridge is a cheaper option than the tunnel (P1) does not constitute a reason for the conclusion that we should Commonly, when an author presents an argument with build a bridge and not a tunnel, unless we combine it side-by-side reasons supporting its conclusion, they see with the reason that the problem is serious enough to each of the reasons put forward as providing some evi- be solved (P2) and with the further reason (P3) that we dence for the conclusion, even independently of the should adopt whatever option is cheaper. So, clearly, in other reasons offered. Sometimes this is not the case. the above argument, the premises offered are meant to Consider the following argument: work together to support the conclusion. Premises like these, which have to be taken together to give support The city should build a second bridge to to their conclusion, are commonly called joint reasons. cross the river instead of a tunnel, since this is the cheapest solution to the traffic conges- We can represent the argument above diagrammati- tion, and traffic congestion is a serious prob- cally in the following way: lem. We clearly should adopt whatever solu- tion is cheapest. P1 P2 P3 Here the conclusion of the argument (C) is that the city should build a second bridge, and not a tunnel. The first premise (P1) is that building a bridge is the cheap- C est solution to traffic congestion, the second premise (P2) is that that traffic congestion is a serious problem, and the third premise (P3) is that the city should adopt Of course, we can have joint-reasons arguments that whatever solution is cheapest. present less (or more) than three joint premises. Here the three premises are clearly related to one an- other, and it is only the combination of the three that 18 Exercise 10 4. We shouldn’t go to the cinema to watch ‘X-Men’ to- night. I'm very tired, and the reviews in the newspa- For each of the following arguments, 1) identify per say the film is really bad; Furthermore, we still the claims in them, 2) identify their premises have all those dishes to do, and we need to save some and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator words money this month. (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the argu- ment, showing if the argument has a simplest 5. Across the world, in homes, schools and communi- case, side-by-side, or joint-reasons structure. ties, millions of children are subject to physical and sexual abuse on a daily basis. It is the duty of every 1. If they can, students should travel often and widely. country, therefore, to ensure that it punishes the indi- For one thing, travel can allow one to practice a for- viduals who perpetrate these acts of brutality against eign language outside the classroom. For another, children. travel exposes one to diverse cultures. Lastly, travel can expose one to fun and adventure that one might 6. Governments around the world must introduce be lacking in one’s daily life. screenings at airports to prevent Ebola-infected trav- ellers from spreading the virus. Ebola is a terrible 2. Field trips for university students should be strongly disease, with a mortality rate of up to 70%. It can eas- encouraged, since university education is not just the- ily be transmitted through physical contact; and in a ory but also involves the practical application of the- plane, where passengers sit very close to one an- ory to the real world. Field trips are the ideal opportu- other, physical contact is very likely to happen. nity to see theory in practice. 7. Education is a defence against radicalism and vio- 3. Eating meat is wrong, since cows, sheep and chick- lence. Education helps people appreciate the values ens are conscious creatures that can feel pain, just of other cultures and religions; it stimulates under- like us, and the meat industry makes cows, sheep standing and tolerance; and it promotes peaceful and chickens suffer a lot. It’s wrong to make con- ways to deal with disagreements and differences. scious beings suffer a lot. 19 8. Istanbul has a rich and fascinating history, and com- pared with the UAE, prices in Istanbul’s shops and Exercise 10 Answers restaurants are low. Moreover, the flight from Dubai to Istanbul is only four hours. Consequently, for peo- ple living in the UAE, Istanbul is a holiday destina- tion worth considering. 9. The aim of universities is to provide a well-rounded education. Students, therefore, should major in what intellectually interests them, not what might get them the highest paid job after graduation. 10.Caffeine is a stimulant. Stimulants keep people awake at night. Coffee contains a lot of caffeine. It is for these reasons that coffee should be avoided, espe- cially at night, by those who have difficulty falling asleep. 20 More than One Conclusion (a Chain of Reason- This is what we call a chain of reasoning, because ing) premises are not simply listed together to support a conclusion, but one premise leads to a conclusion (an Sometimes arguments have neither side-by-side rea- intermediate conclusion) which itself leads (as a sons nor joint reason, but a completely different struc- premise) to another conclusion, the final conclusion. ture. Consider the following argument: Diagrammatically, we can represent the structure of I have to take over a class for a colleague of the argument in the green box like this: mine who is sick today. So, I can’t go pick up my daughter at school. Therefore, I should ask my wife to do it instead. P1 Look at the argument indicators here. There are two conclusion indicators, ‘so’ and ‘therefore’. The argu- ment has the following structure: C1 [Premise] so [conclusion1] therefore [conclu- sion2] C2 Where the premise is that “I have to take over a class for a colleague of mine who is sick today”, conclusion 1 is that “I can’t go pick up my daughter at school”, and conclusion 2 is that “I should ask my wife to do it in- stead”. Conclusion 1 is itself a premise for conclusion 2. 21 Exercise 11 Exercise 11 Answers For each of the following arguments, 1) identify the claims in them, 2) identify their premises and conclusion, 3) identify the indicator words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the argu- ment. 1. Students should complete their course evaluations at the end of the semester because by that time they have experienced the entire course as learners, so their evaluations can provide valuable feedback for their instructors. 2. All world leaders must get together to provide solu- tions to global warming, because global warming is a global threat and thus it could not be solved by a sin- gle country. 3. Ted’s company, which was launched against the ad- vice, and without the support, of bankers and busi- ness consultants, was a great success. This shows that one person’s vision can prove that all the experts in the world are wrong. Anyone thinking of setting up a business, therefore, should trust their own judgement, and not be influenced by the advice of others. 22 We have considered the following cases: Arguments presenting one premise to support a conclu- sion, called the simplest case. Arguments presenting side-by-side premises, each of which is meant to provide support for a conclusion. Arguments presenting joint premises, which are meant to work together to establish a conclusion. Arguments presenting a chain of reasoning, where a conclusion is in turn used as a premise for a further conclusion. 23 Why is it important to distinguish between dif- Mixed Structures ferent argument structures? It is very often the case that arguments present a multi- In critical thinking we are concerned with the analysis plicity of structures all at once; often, that is, argu- and evaluation of arguments. Our goal is thus to evalu- ments can incorporate more than one structure. An ar- ate arguments (to distinguish between good and bad ar- gument can thus be side-by-side and joint, or side-by- guments) and to produce good arguments of our own. side and chain etc. If we are to evaluate arguments, we have to have a clear Consider the following argument: idea of what the conclusion of an argument is, and how that conclusion is seen as supported by its premises; All university students should study critical this requires that we get clear on what the structure of thinking. After all, critical thinking is neces- the argument in question is. For example, if the argu- sary for surviving in the new economy, because ment in question presents side-by-side premises, in or- we need to adapt to rapid changes, and make der to refute the argument (to qualify it as bad) it is not critical use of information in making decisions. sufficient to show that one of its premises is bad, be- Also, critical thinking can help us reflect on our values and purposes in life. Finally, critical cause the other premises, independently of the wrong thinking helps us improve our study skills. one, can provide enough evidence for the conclusion. On the other hand, if the argument depends on a joint- reason structure, showing that a premise is false might Let’s analyse the first half of the argument. be a reason for rejecting the whole argument. For exam- ple, consider the argument in the box on page 16: the The first claim “All university students should study fact that the building a bridge is cheaper than building critical thinking” is a conclusion derived from the prem- a tunnel is not a reason for building a bridge if it is not ise “critical thinking is necessary for surviving in the true that we should adopt the cheapest solution. The new economy” (notice the “after all” premise indicator same can be said for the chain of reasoning case. there). The latter claim, in turn, is supported by the claim (premise) that “we need to adapt to rapid 24 changes and make critical use of information in mak- But look at the rest of the argument, namely at the two ing decisions”. claims “critical thinking can help us reflect on our val- ues and purposes in life” and “critical thinking helps us Claim 1: “All university students should study critical improve our study skills”. These are two additional rea- thinking”. (Conclusion 2) sons (and independent of one another) for why univer- Claim 2: “Critical thinking is necessary for surviving sity students should study critical thinking. So we can in the new economy”. (Conclusion 1) complete the analysis of the argument as follows: Claim 3: “We need to adapt to rapid changes, and Claim 4: “Critical thinking can help us reflect on our make critical use of information in making decisions”. values and purposes in life”. (Premise 2) (Premise 1) Claim 5: “Critical thinking helps us improve our study So the diagram so far looks like a chain of reasoning. skills”. (Premise 3) P1 We can complete the diagram of the argument as fol- lows: P1 P2 P3 C1 C1 C2 C2 25 Let’s consider a different example: The final conclusion in this argument is claim 1, “Ara- bic should be the language of instruction at UAEU”. Arabic should be the language of instruction at This conclusion is supported by the two joint premises UAEU, because Arabic is the official language of “Arabic is the official language of the UAE” (claim 2/ the UAE; and UAEU is the national university in premise1) and “UAEU is the national university in the the UAE. Furthermore, if teaching were in Arabic, UAE” (claim 3/premise2). students would learn more deeply and more quickly, so they would perform better overall. So far, then, the diagram looks like this: P1 P2 Let’s first identify all the claims in the argument. C Claim 1: “Arabic should be the language of instruction at UAEU”. Claim 2: “Arabic is the official language of the UAE”. Claim 4 “If teaching were in Arabic, students would learn more deeply and more quickly” is a premise (P3) Claim 3: “UAEU is the national university in the for the intermediate conclusion (C1) (claim 5) that UAE”. “They (students) would perform better overall”, which, Claim 4: “If teaching were in Arabic, students would in turn is a further premise for the final conclusion of learn more deeply and more quickly”. the argument, claim 1. Claim 5: “They would perform better overall”. So, we can complete the diagram like this: 26  P1 P2 P3 areas of forest to be cut down to provide space for the animals to graze. 2. Public sector jobs have higher salaries than private C1 sector ones. They also have longer holidays and shorter working hours, thus they allow for much more free time. So, it is natural that public sector C2 jobs are more appealing to nationals than private sec- tor ones. Therefore, in order to increase the percent- age of Nationals working in the private sector, it Exercise 12 would be necessary to equate salaries, working Devise an argument with a complex (mixed) hours, and holidays between the two. structure for the final conclusion that “English Exercise 14 should be the language of instruction at UAEU”. For each of the following arguments, 1) identify the claims in them, 2) identify their premises Exercise 13 and conclusion(s), 3) identify the indicator In your group and for the following arguments, words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram of the 1) identify the claims in them, 2) identify their argument. premises and conclusion(s), 3) identify the indi- 1. You should have family barbecues as much as possi- cator words (if any), and 4) provide a diagram ble in the winter months. First, having outdoor fam- of the argument. ily gatherings in the winter is much more pleasant 1. Eating meat is wrong. Cows and sheep are conscious than in the summer. Second, you are always saying creatures, just like us. It’s wrong to treat conscious that want to do more things outside when the beings as mere products. Also, the meat industry is weather is cool, and the weather is only cool enough environmentally damaging because it requires large 27  in the winter to do things outside for extended peri- 5. That book on world religions is bad. First of all, it dis- ods. cusses Islam and Christianity but not Buddhism. Buddhism is one of the most practiced religions in 2. Many residents in this city rely on public transport to the world. In addition, it’s badly written with lots of get to work. Also, tourists to the city tend not to have long, boring passages. Also, its author is not a special- rental cars, so they rely on public transport. It is for ist of the subject. at least these reasons that the government needs to invest more in developing and improving the public 6. A new hotel resort should not be built in this area. transportation network. Plus, improving public trans- This area is highly seismic; and this would put tour- port would create jobs, as well as benefiting the envi- ists at risk. Also, this area is the natural habitat of ronment. many animal and plant species; a new hotel would destroy the natural habitat. 3. If a UAEU student wants to practice their reading and writing skills, then they should take a course in 7. Leaving lights on when no one is home is a waste of critical thinking. Fatima is a student at the UAEU. energy. Wasting energy is a waste of money. So one She also wants to practice her reading and writing should always turn ones house lights off when one is skills. Therefore Fatima should enroll in critical away from home. This is besides the fact that wast- thinking. Plus, taking critical thinking would satisfy ing energy by leaving one’s lights on when no one is a degree requirement, and she wants to graduate as home is bad for the environment. soon as possible. 8. Plastic bags should be banned if we want to protect 4. On the weekend we can either go to Dubai or Abu the environment. They are left around by people Dhabi. There are lots of reasons why we shouldn’t go and seriously threaten wildlife. They are hardly de- to Abu Dhabi this weekend. Therefore, we should go gradable, and so they would contaminate the envi- to Dubai. This is all besides the fact that Mariam is ronment for hundreds of years. Furthermore, they one of our best friends, and she invited us to her wed- are made of plastic the production of which pro- ding reception this weekend in Dubai. duces lots of greenhouse gasses. And greenhouse gasses contribute to damaging the environment. 28 9. Many people in this city do all-night shift-work and whose young female population is uneducated can so cannot shop for groceries during regular busi- promise them a good future. ness hours. Also, people should be free to do their grocery shopping whenever they want. It is for these reasons that at least some grocery stores in this city should be open 24 hours. Plus, doing so would create work for people by making need for employees to cover the night shift. Exercise 13&14 Answers 10. You will become a very good lawyer because you can easily learn things by heart and have a talent Notes for arguing in all kinds of disputes. In conclusion, I think you will earn a lot because all the good law- yers have wonderful salaries. 11. It is wrong to honk one’s horn to order take away food at restaurants. It is very annoying for custom- ers who are sitting outside enjoying their dinner. It also puts lots of pressure on restaurant staff given that they have to run from car to car to take orders. Finally, it is just a very rude way to order one’s food. Here you can add your notes on Chapter 3 12. Malala Yousafzai is a well-deserved winner of the 2014 Nobel Peace prize. She has spent most of her young life campaigning for education for young women. And this is very important since no country 29