Critical Thinking and Practical Reasoning Chapters 1 & 2 PDF

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION PHL205: CRITICAL THINKING AND PRACTICAL REASONING CHAPTER 1...

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION PHL205: CRITICAL THINKING AND PRACTICAL REASONING CHAPTER 1 & 2 FERDINARD FOSU-BLANKSON Course Code and Course Title Instructor  MEANING OF CRITICAL SESSIONTHINKING Click What toThinking? is Critical edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Consider these critical thinking questions which you are likely to encounter: 1.Mention some themes you see from our class discussion? 2.What self-image do you project upon first encounters? 3.Is it always wrong to lie?  SESSION Most definitions we of critical thinking incorporate these basic critical thinking skills. The OBJECTIVES following skills are what identifies an individual to be engaging in critical thinking. CORE Interpretation: an understanding of experiences, events, CRITICAL procedures or beliefs THINKING Evaluation: an assessment of the credibility of statements or SKILLS information Inference: identifying elements in statements to draw obvious or likely conclusions Analysis: identifying the inferential relationship(s) amongst concepts , descriptions, questions and statements Explanation: a cogent and coherent account of one’s reasoning or opinion of events Self-Regulation: the self-conscious effort of monitoring one’s decision-making and actions  SESSION Critical thinking is important in our everyday activity. OBJECTIVES Critical thinking improves language and RELEVANCE presentational skills. OF CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinking promotes creativity. Critical thinking is relevant for examination. Science and governance require critical thinking. Critical thinking promotes racial, political and religious tolerance.  SESSION CRITICAL THINKING AND CLEAR WRITING Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES CLARITY CORRECTN CONCISE ESS CONTROL NESS COHERE NCE  Interrogative Sentence The purpose of interrogative question is to solicit or SESSION require information from someone by questioning. OBJECTIVES For Example: Do you have the keys to the door? How are you doing this morning? TYPES OF SENTENCES This is a sentence that requires someone to do Imperative Sentence something or undertake certain actions (could be a command, instruction, directive or request). For Example: Drive to the junction and turn right. Clear this desk by tomorrow, do you hear that! This is a factual statement that conveys information Declarative Sentence about the external world. So, they could either be True/False or can be Accepted/Denied. For Example: Snow is white. Gold is an expensive metal.  SESSION Emotive This is aOBJECTIVES sentence that expresses a strong Sentence emotional feeling. TYPES OF For Example: SENTENCES I hate how she dresses, it is disgusting! Cont… This is really insane! Sentence This is an incomplete sentence that lacks Fragment either a subject or a verb or both. For Example: Called you yesterday. Your dream house.  SESSION Subjunctive This is OBJECTIVES a sentence that expresses a Sentence suggestion or conditionality. TYPES OF For Example: SENTENCES Let us learn so we don’t fail this exam. Cont… The best way to win is to attack, unless you want to loose. Optative Optative sentences express wish or Sentence desire. For Example: May God help us. I wish I could tour the city.  AMBIGUITY AmbiguitySESSION occurs when a sentence can be interpreted as having more than one meaning. OBJECTIVES Types of Ambiguity: AMPHIBOLY SENTENCES EQUIVOCATION AND AMBIGUITIES AMPHIBOLY An amphiboly occurs when an expression has more than one meaning. For Example: James and John are playing the game and he is winning. If you have children and you don’t know, there is children’s class now. EQUIVOCATION A sentence is equivocal when an ambiguous term is used more than once to render an expression misleading. For Example: I went to a gay friend’s party and the party was so gay. The bank is lacking protection.  An argument is a stated claim (conclusion) with reasons SESSION or evidence (premises) OBJECTIVES to support it by convincing the listener or affirming the stated claim. MEANING OF Example 1 ARGUMENT Kojo may not make it to the party. (conclusion) He is allergic to spices. (premise 1) The food we all ate at the camp was spiced. (premise 2) Example 2 All Ghanaians are Africans. (premise 1) All Africans are human beings. (premise 2) Therefore, all Ghanaians are human beings. (conclusion)  Two TypesSESSION of Argument The two types of argument are DEDUCTIVE and INDUCTIVE OBJECTIVES arguments. The basic difference is that in DEDUCTIVE arguments, the conclusion is derived from the premises but TYPES OF with INDUCTIVE arguments, the conclusion is not certain and does not rely on the premise(s). ARGUMENT DEDUCTIVE (credible/surety) All humans are mortal. Peter is a human being. Therefore, Peter is a mortal. (conclusion) INDUCTIVE (probability/likelihood) It has been raining for the past three days. It rained this morning too. Therefore, I am buying an umbrella because it may rain tomorrow. (conclusion)  Inference indicators are words or phrases that are used to SESSION signal the presence of anOBJECTIVES argument. There are two types of inference indicators and they are premise and IDENTIFYING conclusion indicators. ARGUMENTS Premise Indicators For Since For the reason that Because Given that Granted that Seeing that Conclusion Indicators Therefore Consequently It follows that So Hence Accordingly For which we can infer  An Issue is any matter that is up for discussion. In other SESSION words, it is any matter of controversy that can be OBJECTIVES discussed or debated on. Sometimes people misconceive the word “issue” to WHAT IS AN mean a problem or quarrel. ISSUE? An example of an issue is the controversy on the swiftness of a cat and a mouse. Another example is the issue on which university is the best in West Africa. Issues are often characterized by the word “whether”: a. Whether the earth is bigger than the moon b. Whether red is a color c. Whether it is going to rain today  To help identity the issue SESSION in a passage or sentence, focus on the theme or subject matter. This will help OBJECTIVES you identify the what is being emphasized – the issue. Cont… Try these: 1. Is the cedi likely to loose its value? 2. My presentation was excellent; what do you think? 3. I just don’t know who among this twin is more beautiful. 4. I am loosing taste for jollof.  There are established method/ standards/ criteria SESSION Factual for settling matters. OBJECTIVES If two people disagree on the same issue, at least Issue one of them is wrong. TYPES OF Its is raining outside. ISSUES Jupiter is made up of clay. The length of the two pairs are different. Non-factual There are no standards for settling matters. Issue If two people disagree on the same issue, we cannot tell which one of them is wrong. Yellow is the prettiest color. Bald headed men are very caring. Hitler was a wicked man.  SESSIONOF CLAIMS ASSESSING THE CREDIBILITY Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Criteria 1 Background information A claim may conflict with our background information when factual reports are inconsistent with ones background information. This then makes the information doubtful and hence, its credibility is questionable. Criteria 2 Personal Observation This means that one can reasonably believe to be suspicious about any claim that conflicts with personal information, especially information obtained via the five senses. Note that the senses are fallible. And the Memory is not always reliable. Criteria 3 Personal Interests One’s personal interest and biases can affect their perception and hence, distorts their judgment. Such impairments on judgement does not hold credibility, hence, doubtful.  SESSION Click to edit ASSESSING THE Master titleOF CREDIBILITY OBJECTIVESstyle SOURCES Criteria 1 Knowledge and Expertise A source could be assessed on the basis of Knowledge and Expertise by considering: Education, Experience, Accomplishments, Reputation, Position. Criteria 2 Truthfulness/Objectivity/Accuracy A source could be assessed on the basis of Truthfulness, Objectivity and Accuracy.  SESSION OBJECTIVES Credible Doubtful Source Claim Credible Doubtful MAKE EXAMPLES OF: Credible Source/Doubtful Claim Source Claim Credible Source/Credible Claim Doubtful Source/Doubtful Claim Doubtful Source/Credible Claim  Meaning, Purpose and Types of Rhetorical Devices SESSION Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Rhetorical devices are tools that affect audience’s beliefs without offering reason for the claim. Words or phrases that manipulate their emotive force are called rhetorical devices and techniques. Rhetorical devices comes in different forms and serve different purposes. Rhetoric typically occurs in the absence of argument , as a substitute for argument. Note that the rhetorical techniques should make us dismiss claims out of hand. But they should also not make us accept them uncritically.  SESSION Types of Rhetorical Devices Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES This is the use of mild, pleasant, indirect expressions rather than Euphemism harsh ones. “Passed away” is a euphemism for death ”Adult entertainment” is a euphemism for pornography My father has been between jobs for some time now. Contrary to Euphemisms, Dysphemism uses harsh and more Dysphemism offensive expressions. “Worm food” is a dysphemism for “dead”. “Cancer stick” is a dysphemism for “cigarette”. You are nothing but a sexpot! Who the hell do you think you are? Hyperbole A Hyperbole is an extreme exaggeration “I am so hungry I could eat a full cow.” “His mouth odor covered the room like a cloud.” I had to wait in the station for ten days.  SESSION Types of Rhetorical Devices Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES An inuendo says what it does not say. It is a critical Inuendo and disparaging subtle or indirect way of expressing mostly, derogatory remarks. Mark has been spending a lot of time with Allison, if you know what I mean. The weather is too cold, let us warm up in bed. This is an indirect speech used intentionally to Sarcasm produce a certain dramatic effect of the listener by horse laughing or ridiculing. Watching you bite your nails in the examination hall really convinces me that you have everything under control. Not all men are cheap and annoying; some are dead. Honesty is the best policy – when there is money in it.  SESSION Types of Rhetorical Devices Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Stereotyping This is when someone lumps people under one name or description. Men who spend too much time on the computer or reading are geeks. Slim ladies are people suffering from anorexia. Women look with lustful and tempting eyes. Loaded This is a complex question that has limited replies Question to those that serves the question’s agenda. Have you stopped stealing? Is it true you stopped robbing banks? Are you still lazy at your job?  SESSION FALLACIES Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES A Fallacy is an error in reasoning. Types of FALLACIES: a. Formal Fallacies: they are fallacies that emerge from a defective structure (or invalid pattern) of an argument (usually a deductive argument). b. Informal Fallacies: they are fallacies that emerge from a defective content rather than a defective structure of an argument  SESSION Psychological and Related Fallacies Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Appeal to This fallacy occurs when a person allows themselves to be persuaded with anger with the agenda of influencing their Anger ideas or actions without providing appropriate reasons. How could you vote for the current US President? Don’t you know what he says about blacks? Appeal to This fallacy occurs when a person allows themselves to be persuaded with fear with the agenda of influencing their Fear ideas or actions without providing appropriate reasons. Are you sure you want to go and study at this time? It is really dark. Anyway, go ahead. A politician claims that if we do not raise taxes, the country will default on its debts.  SESSION Psychological and Related Fallacies Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Appeal to This fallacy occurs when a person is convinced on the grounds of being pitiful or sympathetic to influence Pity another’s action without providing appropriate reasons. Professor, my grades were bad last semester and my CGPA is now lying in-between two classes. I cannot afford to make bad grades this semester. Actually, this is our final year and my parent expect much from me. Consider my plight. Ginger: Your dog just ran into our house and ransacked our kitchen! Mary: He would never do that, look at how adorable he is with those puppy eyes! Appeal to This fallacy occurs when an arguer supports a conclusion Popularity by referring to the number of people who believe in it. Everyone already believes that the defendant killed her husband, and that many people cannot be wrong. There must be some truth to the fact that global warming is a hoax because approximately 75% of the population believes that it is a hoax!  SESSION Fallacies of Distraction Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES This fallacy is committed when an arguer claims his conclusion Appeal to Ignorance must be accepted since there is no counter evidence. X is true because you cannot prove that X is false and X is false because you cannot prove that X is true. Since my parents have never told me that smoking is bad, it implies that smoking is good. This fallacy occurs when you are presented two option as False Dilemma though they are the only options that exist. The animal shelter is a place that values animal rights and never euthanizes animals, or the animal shelter is a place that kills innocent animals. You either like kids or you don’t. This occurs when we allege a progressively dubious chain of Slippery Slope events as ultimately leading to a feared or desired end. Once we allow the children to sleep at 10:00pm, they will eventually decide not sleep during the night. If you allow your wife to chose the movie you watch, she would want to choose the dresses for you. Eventually, she will control your whole life.  SESSION Fallacies of Changing the Subject Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Appeal to False This happens an inappropriate authority to a subject is cited as evidence to support a Authority conclusion. Kantanka, a well renowned engineer, claims that the economy of every country will collapse in the next ten years. I agree with his position because he is good at what he does. I know a chemist who is an expert in his field, and according to him, there is life after death. Appeal to Force/Threat This occurs when an arguer supports a conclusion by remarking about what would happen to the receiver if she does not believe the conclusion. If you students don’t think you should invite me to the class party, just reflect that I still have not turned in the grades for the class. Never do anything in this office without pre-informing me, if you want to keep your job. Fallacy of Personal This fallacy occurs the arguer, rather than providing appropriate evidence to support their conclusion, they rather attack by indicating counter personal circumstances, insulting or Attack showering praises. Mom, I can’t believe you are the one telling me not to involve myself in early sexual activities when you gave birth to me at age twelve. “Of course he cannot be our president. He is too short to represent us.”  SESSION Fallacies of Changing the Subject Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES This fallacy occurs when one accuses a person of a position Strawman they did not take (usually a position far worse than their position), so the arguer could comfortably denounce it. Abena says she thinks her friends should not be so rude to the new girl. Jenna says that she cannot believe that Abena is choosing to be better friends with the new girl than the girls who have always known her. This fallacy occurs when there is an attempt to digress the Red Herring argument to another issue which the person doing the digression can better respond. Donald was asked about his negligence in handling the coronavirus earlier in 2020. Donald Trump argues that despite the detrimental effect of coronavirus on the lives of many, the American economy is still thriving.  Fallacies ofSESSION Induction Click to edit Master title style OBJECTIVES Circular Reasoning In this fallacy, the conclusion of an argument rests upon an alleged chain reaction and there is not sufficient reason to think that the chain reaction will actually take place. Steroids have an adverse effect on our health because they are harmful to our health. People that do smart things are smart because smart people do smart things. Hasty Generalization This fallacy occurs when the sample used in the argument is too small to represent the population referred in the conclusion of the argument. Indeed, all women are caring. Tasty Chef is the best food joint in the university. I tried their jollof last week and it was delicious. Misplaced Vividness In this fallacy, a few dramatic or vivid examples of a phenomenon are taken to outweigh overwhelming statistical evidence. Mrs. Merissa Lloyd, an African-American citizen, recently acquired a white collar job in the United States of America after finishing her national service. It follows that many African- American citizens are likely to acquire white collar jobs after national service. University of Cape Coast Cape Coast Ghana