Criminological Research Notes PDF

**CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH** **THE MEANING OF RESEARCH** From the old French word "***cerchier***", which means to "***seek or searc**h*". Research is derived from the prefix ***re,*** which means ***"to repeat "*** or ***"re-do,"*** and the root word search, which means "***to find***" or "***look...

**CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH** **THE MEANING OF RESEARCH** From the old French word "***cerchier***", which means to "***seek or searc**h*". Research is derived from the prefix ***re,*** which means ***"to repeat "*** or ***"re-do,"*** and the root word search, which means "***to find***" or "***look for***". *Note*: Research literally means "***to repeat looking***" **Widely use Definition of Research** Research is a [purposive], [systematic], and [scientific process] of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction for intention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. **The Definition of Criminological Research** A "careful, systematic study of knowledge in the field of criminology or criminal justice, undertaken to discover or establish facts or causations of crime" (Soriano, 2011) **CHARACTERISTICS** OF RESEARCH 1. ***Systematic*** -- it is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a research has to observe in solving a problem. 2. ***Objectives*** -- it is not based on guesswork. 3. ***Comprehensive*** -- if a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he need to examine and analyze all aspects or angles before making a generalization or conclusion. 4. ***Critical*** -- this means that procedures employed by the researcher must be able to withstand detailed scrutiny by other researcher. 5. ***Valid*** -- whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these have to be based on actual findings. 6. ***Verifiable*** -- research is said to be verifiable when other researchers can check on the correctness and validity of the results based on the methods and procedures employed by the researcher. 7. ***Empirical*** -- research is empirical when generalizations drawn by a researcher are rooted upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from a real -- life experiences or observation **THE VALUE OF RESEARCH** There are different ways by which we can **obtain knowledge** and **information**. - Expert Opinion -- source of knowledge from lawyers, doctors etc. - Sensory Experience -- obtaining information through our senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell) - Agreement with others -- information coming from friends, colleagues and family. - Reasoning -- general observation to particular or specific cases - Common Sense -- your good sense and sound judgment in practical matters - Research -- reliable source of knowledge because research utilized scientific method. *Note:* it is only through research we can gain reliable knowledge. THE **IMPORTANCE** OF **RESEARCH** IN CRIMINOLOGY - It helps students and even professionals to ascertain to recognize what works in the areas of law enforcement, prosecution, legal service, court, system, community, and correctional institutional. - It provides the basis for the formulation of criminal justice policies. - It equips student with skills essential for educational and professional success, notably critical thinking skills, analytical thinking skills and making sense out of the data from multiple sources. - It helps students identify more effective approaches to law enforcement and administration of justice. - It helps students become educated consumers of research by being able to identify the strengths and weakness of studies in the field of criminology. **TYPES** OF RESEARCH On the basis on who **undertakes research**: - **Academic Research** -- is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the requirements for the conferment of academic title or degree (ex. Baby theses, master's theses, feasibility studies, and doctoral dissertation) - **Research Project** -- on the other hand, is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of individuals as part of their professional work or assignment. On the basis on **final use or application**: - **Pure or Theoretical research** -- is one done on for the purpose of formulating a theory, principle, or law, with no intended application of result. - **Applied Research** - is an inquiry to test or evaluate a theory or knowledge arrived at, in the solution of a problem or for useful ends. On the basis on **method of data analysis**: - **Quantitative Research** - is used for the purpose of measuring, for example, a criminological or criminal justice reality. - **Qualitative Research** -- is done for the purpose of capturing life as participants experience it. On the basis on **methodology or research design**: - **Descriptive research** -- this type of research seeks to describe systematically, factually, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon. - **Correlational or Association Research** -- in this type of research, the investigator tries to probe on the significance of the relationship between two or more factors characteristics. - **Explanatory Research** -- in this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify why and how a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon. - **Exploratory Research** -- this kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is after probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem. Feasibility and pilot studies fall under this type of research - **Experimental Research** -- in this type of research, it probes into the cause of an effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatments or conditions. - **Ex-post Facto or Casual-Comparative Research** -- Research of this type when the investigator delves on analyzing the possible effects of a factor which cannot be manipulated and controlled. - **Historical Research** -- the researcher attempts to reconstruct the past objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use of data taken from the past. - **Ethnographic Research** -- this type of research is done when the researcher is concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically, with the use of multiple data collection techniques. THE **RESEARCH PROCESS** - **Step 1: Idea -- Generating Phase** -- it is in this phase the researcher has to identify topics that interest him the most. It is in this step where he has to justify why a study on a particular topic is needed. - **Step 2: Problem -- Definition Phase** -- this is the problem definition phase. This step involves the following activities: identification and definition of variables to be studied; development of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study; the formulation of the major and specific problems to be investigated; and the formulation of the hypothesis. - **Step 3: Procedures -- Design Phase** -- this is the procedures-design phase. The activities a researcher has to undertake in this phase include the following: selection of research participants; decision on what research methodology to employ; development and validation of data gathering tool; specification of the procedures to be observed in the actual collection of the data; and planning and analysis of the data - **Step 4: Data -- Collection Phase** -- it is in this phase where the procedures, designed in the previous step, are implemented by the researcher rigorously. - **Step 5: Data -- Analysis Phase** -- in this particular phase the researcher analyzes the collected data from the previous step based on his data -- analysis plan. - **Step 6: Interpretation Phase** -- after generating answers to the problem, the researcher has to compare the results predicted based on the theoretical framework of the study. - **Step 7: Communication Phase** -- preparation of written or oral report of the study conducted, either for publication or presentation to colleagues or a panel of expert. This report has to include a description of the entire above step in the research process. **LITERATURE REVIEW** **What is Literature Review?** A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles, and other sources relevant to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on a topic. Literature reviews are designed to** identify** and **critique** the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by **exposing gaps** in current research. **The purpose of a literature review is to**: a. Provide a foundation of knowledge on a topic b. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other researchers c. Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions left from other research d. Identify the need for additional research (justifying your research) e. Identify the relationship of works in the context of their contribution to the topic and other works f. Place your own research within the context of existing literature, making a case for why further study is needed. **Process of Writing Literature Review** The process of writing a literature review is not necessarily a linear process, you will often have to loop back and refine your topic, try new searches and altar your plans. The info graphic on the right side illustrates this process.  It also reminds you to continually keep track of your research by citing sources and creating a bibliography. 1. **Topic **- Decide on a research topic or question. The formulation of a thesis will help get your process started. This may have to be revisited as you work on your research. - Know what the review is for; each assignment will offer the purpose for the review.  For example, is it for "background", or a "pro and con discussion", \"integration\", "summarizing", etc. - Create a "search plan", decide where you will search for information, what type of information you will need. 2. **Research**  - Preform Searches; choose sources and collect information to use in your paper. Make sure you cite the sources used. 3. **Think** - Analyze information in a systematic manner and begin your literature review (e.g., summarize, synthesize, etc.). Make sure you cite the sources used. 4. **Complete** - Write your paper, proof & revise and create your finished bibliography. **Types Of Literature Review** **Chronological** In the ***chronological approach***, literature and studies are presented according to the year when they were written. When using this approach, the review can be presented following the outline below. **Thematic Or Variable** In the ***thematic or variable approach**,* literature and studies with the same findings or themes are grouped together. When using this approach, research and conceptual literature can be presented following the outline below. ***Country Of Origin*** In the ***country of origin approach**,* literature and studies are categorized by the country where they came from. In most colleges and universities in the Philippines, this scheme is popularly used. When using this model, literature and studies can be presented based on the following outline. **Historical Review** Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomenon emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research. **Methodological Review** A review does not always focus on **what** someone said \[content\], but **how** they said it \[method of analysis\]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study. **Theoretical Review** The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomenon. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework. Note: Whether the approach is chronological, thematic or country of origin, an introduction and a synthesis are needed. It is in the Introduction, where you have to make your reader aware of how you are going to present the reviewed literature and studies. On the other hand, it is in the synthesis of the review where you have to stress the uniqueness of your study concerning the literature and studies you include in the review. **The Research Problem** **Sources of Research Problems** One of the sources of research problems is ***personal interests and observations***. Our own interests and observations are important because they can point to directions for research and in sustaining the study. Most often, students are at a loss to get an idea for a research project and, often, believe it to be very difficult. The springboard for research is all around us. All we have to do is to observe and be curious. Another possible source of question for research is **the *pressing problem needing a solution*.** Whether in school, workstation, or the community, we are confronted with problems requiring immediate solution or attention. These difficulties that have to be immediately addressed are potential problems for research. For instance, traffic congestion, drug addiction, criminality in the country's metropolitan areas, and spread of Type A (H1N1) flu are good topics for research. ***Other investigators theories and research*** can also be sources of research problems. One of the most interesting things about research it that it raises more questions than it answers. These new questions can also serve as a starting point for further research. ***Literature in ones field of specialization*** is another possible source of a research problem. Books and research journals in your area of expertise can be a potential source of research topic. These sources, not only teach readers about a particular discipline or profession, but also suggest topics for further study and exploration. ***Completed theses and dissertations*** are also good sources of research problems. These research projects normally suggest topics that future researchers can work on, particularly the recommendation section of the research report. ***Suggestions from colleagues and professors*** can also provide researchers with problems for in-depth study. Your friends and peers who have undertaken research in a particular discipline can suggest problematic areas needing immediate attention, which can be a possible topic for study. Even your professors in your major subjects can recommend topics for further investigation. **Factors to Consider in the Choice of a Research Problem** - ***Novel***. When considering a research topic, you have to focus on one which has not been fully investigated before. In the event that the problem was already studied, you need to inject originality by coming up with another research design, using a different data-gathering tool or a different scheme for analyzing research data. It can be a new twist in the character of the problem. - ***Relevant***. The results of the study on a given problem should be of practical value to you and the significant others in the field. This means that once the study had been completed, its findings, conclusions, and recommendations can be used in improving practices or solving identified difficulties. - ***Interesting.*** As the researcher, you need to consider your interest in the choice of a research problem. Interest counts 3 lot in the conduct of a study. If you are not interested on the topic, it will be difficult for you to put your heart and soul in it. - ***Feasible.*** This means that a problem you are going to work on can be completed without undue amount of time, money or effort. Research feasibility also means that you have the necessary competence or expertise to conduct the study on the chosen problem. - ***Researchable***. This means that data can be collected to answer the problem that you pose. A researcher, for instance, who wants to prove the existence of God will definitely find it difficult to gather quantifiable data to answer the said problem. - ***Ethical.*** A research problem is said to be ethical when it does not involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings or organizations. In other words, a study on a particular topic should not put people or institutions in a bad light. **Types at Research Problems** A ***descriptive research question*** typically asks "what is" and suggests a survey research design. Some examples of descriptive research question are as follows: - What is the prevalent organizational culture of the Philippine National Police as assessed by its officers and men? - What is the level of emotional readiness of criminology interns of IRU for entry into police service, as assessed by themselves and their practicum supervisors? - What are the dominant leadership styles of police station commanders in the National Capital Region as perceived by themselves and their subordinates? - What is the level of commitment of the uniformed and non-uniformed officers of the Philippine National Police to their job and the organization? - What are the behavioral problems manifested by the new breed of law enforcers? A ***relationship research question*** asks, "What is the relationship between two or more variables or factors under study?" and implies a correlational design.\'1hefoilowing are examples of relationship research questions: - Does emotional readiness of senior criminology students relate significantly with their performance in their on-the-job training? - Is the self-concept of the BS Criminology students of IRU related to their performance in their professional subjects? - Is there a significant association between unemployment and commission of crimes in two slum areas in Quezon City? - Is there a significant relationship between leadership skills and the ability of the police investigators to handle crime incidents in Manila? - How significant is the relationship between the on-the job-training stressors and coping strategies of criminology interns of the Philippine College of Criminology? A ***difference research question*** typically asks, "Is there a difference between or among the respondents in relation to a characteristic or factor under study?" This type of question is often used when a researcher is after comparing two or more observations. Examples of difference research questions are shown below. - How do male and female criminology graduates compare in their performance in the criminology licensure examination? - How do the inmates in Mandaluyong Jail compare in their personal values when they are categorized according to the following variables: 1\. age; 2\. gender; 3\. civil status; and 4\. educational attainment? - How significant is the difference in the law enforcement competencies of police officers in Metro-Manila when they are grouped according to place of deployment? - How do criminology graduates from private and state colleges and universities compare in their performance 1n the licensure examination for criminologists? - How do the officers and men of the PNP in the National Capital Region compare in their levels of job and organizational commitment? **Stating the Research Problem** After selecting the research problem, it has to be adequately stated. There are two ways of stating research problems, namely: **declarative**; and in **question form**. In most colleges and universities in the Philippines, the ***declarative form*** is used when stating the main problem of the study. On the other hand, the ***question form*** is used when stating the sub-problems or specific problems of the proposed research. Go over the example below and reflect on how the research problems on the relationship between the level of leadership skills and performance of police investigators in the National Capital Region were stated. **Title of the Study**: The Level of Leadership Skills and Performance of Police Investigators in Handling Crime Incidents in the National Capital Region ***Main Problem*** \~ This study was undertaken for the purpose of establishing the relationship between the level of leadership skills and performance of police investigators in handling crime incidents in the National Capital Region (NCR). ***Sub-problems*** - The following specific problems were answered in inquiry: 1. As, assessed by PNP personnel, barangay officials, and court personnel what is level of leadership skills of police investigators in the selected cities in the research locale in terms of the following: 1.1 operational skills; 1.2 strategic skills; 1.3 technical skills; and 1.4 human skills? 2. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of the respondents on the level of leadership skills of police investigators, with regard to the aforementioned variables? 3. What is the performance of police investigators in handling crime incidents as assessed by the respondents in terms of: 3.1 investigation procedure at the crime scene; 3.2 pre-charge investigation report; 3.3 review evaluation of pre-charge investigation report; 3.4 documentation of the case under investigation; and 3.5 case preparation as prosecutor's witness? 4. How significant is the difference in the assessment of the respondents on the performance of police investigators in handling crime incidents in relation to the aforementioned variables? 5. How significant is the relationship between the level of leadership skills and performance of police investigators in handling crime incidents? 6. What are the problems encountered by the police investigators in handling crime incidents in the selected municipalities? \' 7. What measures may be recommended to enhance the performance of police investigators in handling crime incidents? To be able to state the main problem in your proposed study, be clear as to what you really want to accomplish. Certainty with what you want to find out will definitely enable you to state the main problem easily and correctly. State your research problem in a sentence showing what you want to describe, explain or predict. Once you have stated your main problem, try to answer the following questions: - Is the problem statement clear? Being able to identify exactly what is to be investigated from the problem statement is an indication that it is clear. - Does it provide adequate focus and direction for research? Knowledge of what is to be done after stating the main problem means that it had guided you on what to do and what to emphasize in research. - Does it identify the key factors or variables of the study? If the key factors cannot be identified from your statement of the research problem, then it is wrongly stated. As most problems are too large or complex to be solved, they have to be subdivided. Every problem can be broken down into smaller or discrete units. These sub-parts are often called sub-problems. According to Leedy (2003), it is by viewing the main problem through the sub-problem that the researcher gets a better view of the entire research endeavor. Inasmuch as we have to always think of the research problem in terms of its component parts, there is a need for us to be aware of the characteristics of sub-problems. - Each sub-problem should be a completely researchable unit. A subproblem should be researched as a separate sub-project within the larger research goal. It is stated in the form of a question. - Interpretation of data must be apparent with each sub-problem. The fact that data will be interpreted must be clearly evident from the statement of the sub-problem. - The sub-problems must add up to the totality of the problems. This simply means that the sub-problems formulated will aid the researcher in covering all the significant areas of the main problem. **Writing the Title of the Study** After identifying your research problem, you need to give it a title. The label for the problem is your research title. There are certain functions served by the research title. Notable among these functions are the following: - It shows what the study is all about. - It serves as a frame of reference for the entire study. - It enables the researcher to claim ownership of the study. - It can help other researchers refer to the work for possible theories related to their proposed studies. As the title is necessary for a study on a research problem, there are some attributes or characteristics, it must possess. As pointed out by Sevilla (1993) and Adanza (1995), a good title is clear and specific, as the contents of the study are clearly shown in it. It also shows relationships among the characteristics or factors being studied. Hence, a good title implies whether the research will focus on differences, effects, or associations between and among variables to be investigated. Finally, a good title is brief but concise. By brevity is meant that it is composed of not more than 15 substantive words, excluding function words such as articles, conjunctions, and prepositions. **Making the Research Problem Manageable** **Defining Key Terms in the Problem** In any study, you need to define the key terms or concepts in the statement of the problem in order to avoid confusion or ambiguity (Kumar, 1996). Examine the following statement of a research problem. What are the key terms that should be defined in the statement of the problem? To ensure clarity and focus, the following terms have to be defined: management styles; and behavior patterns. How then should these terms be defined? Researchers usually define key terms either conceptually or operationally. ***Conceptual definition*** is the definition of a term as given by authorities or experts in a particular discipline. On the other hand, ***operational definition*** is the researcher's own definition of a term, based on how it will be used in his study. This kind of definition requires a researcher to specify actions or operations necessary to identify and measure the terms. Consider the following definitions of the key terms in the previously stated research problem. The first definition is conceptual, while the second is operational. Why define key terms in the problem? Fishers, as cited by Sevilla (1993), say that definition of the key terms establishes the rules and procedures the researcher will use to measure the variables of the study. Moreover, it provides a clear meaning of terms that otherwise can be interpreted in different ways. **Identifying the Variables of the Study** To ensure objectivity in the study of an identified problem, the researcher has to be definite as to what variables are to be examined or investigated. A variable is a property or characteristic that takes on different values (Kerlinger, 1986: Wiersma, 1991). It is a symbol to which number or values can be attached or assigned. The most commonly used classification of variables includes independent, dependent, intervening and moderating variables. - ***Independent variable*** - the cause that is intervening is supposed to be responsible for bringing about changes in the independent variable. - ***Intervening variable*** - a variable whose existence is inferred but that cannot be manipulated or controlled. - ***Moderator variable*** - a variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the research situation. Let us illustrate the above concepts by recalling the research problem earlier mentioned on the relationship of perceived management styles of the senior police officers and their subordinates' behavior. In the said study, perceived management style is the independent variable, as it will be used to explain possible differences in the subordinates' behavior patterns. On the other hand, subordinates' behavior is the dependent variable since it is the effect that will be determined as consequences of the senior police officers' particular management style. What factors, other than management style, can affect the behavior patterns of the subordinates? These may include commitment to the job or the organization, level of professional, and the work values, among others. These are examples of intervening variables. As regards possible moderator variables, the following can be considered: age; gender; civil status; number of years in the service; educational attainment; college assignment; teaching performance rating. Why are these -moderator variables? They are moderator variables as they are variances in the subordinates' behavior patterns, as well as their superiors' management styles that can possibly be accounted for by their differences in personal and professional attributes. According to Wiersma (1991), when a moderator variable is controlled, it becomes an intervening factor. When a researcher becomes aware of the existence of a moderator variable and assesses its effect on the dependent variable, it becomes a control variable. On the contrary, when the researcher is unable to manipulate or measure the potential moderator variable, then it is automatically an intervening variable. **Delimiting Research** One way of making a more focused study on a problem is by delimiting it. It is simply giving full specification of what the researcher intends to do or does not intend to do. When a researcher is able to set the scope and delimitation of his study, he can make his research more manageable. At the same time this can direct him to the proper choice of the research method to employ. How can a researcher delimit his research on an identified problem? A researcher can set the scope and delimitation of his study by focusing on the following: - Purpose of the study - Time coverage of the investigation - Geographical coverage of the inquiry - Variables to be studied - Specific indicators of variables - Type and size of the respondents of the study - Data collection tools to be used in data gathering. How to delimit a study is illustrated below. *The study described, assessed, and analyzed the mediation skills and values of the barangay chairmen in Zone 14 of Pasay City during the second quarter of 2011. Mediation skills exhibited by the barangay chairmen were described in terms of the following scales: very competently displayed; competently displayed; somewhat competently displayed; and very incompetently displayed. On the other hand, mediation values professed and enacted by the barangay chairmen were profiled based on the following scales: practiced to a very great extent; practiced to a great extent; practiced to a moderate extent, practiced to a less extent; and not all practiced.* *Answers to the problems of this study were primarily based on the assessment and perception of the respondents, gathered through the use of a questionnaire. Hence, the findings of this study are limited to the nature of the questionnaire used.* *Inasmuch as this study was done in Zone 14 of Pasay City, generalizations and conclusions formulated in this study shall be applicable only to this locale. Nonetheless, salient findings of this study can serve as input to improving the implementation of the barangay justice system in all the areas of Pasay City.* Basuel and Mendoza (2013), the research delimited their study, thus: *This study centered on analyzing the frequency of crimes against property committed in two barangays of Mandaluyong City, with the end in view of identifying implications to criminality. It, likewise, described the respondents perception of the extent of the unemployment m the research locale. Crimes against property covered in this study included the following: robbery, burglary, theft, motor-vehicle theft, arson, shoplifting, and vandalism.* *The researchers, however, did not attempt to establish correlation between unemployment and criminality. Nonetheless, survey results were used as a basis for identifying the implications of the findings particularly on criminality.* **Stating Assumptions in Research** To enhance the understanding of the problem to be studied, the researcher needs to state his assumptions. An assumption in research is a statement that the researcher presumes to be true, and need not proven. Nonetheless, it has to be based on the research problem. In a study on the interpersonal values of inmates at Mandaluyong City Jail, the researcher came up with the following basic assumptions: 1. That inmates have their own concept of what is good and desirable for themselves 2. That an individual's interpersonal values can be identified and measured with the use of an appropriate inventory 3. That there are factors that affect an individual's profession and enactment of a particular interpersonal value 4. That Gordon's Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) is culture-free and can be used in determining the interpersonal values professed and enacted by the respondents of the study. **Stating the Hypothesis of the Study** Formulation of the hypothesis of the study is another important Consideration\' in making one's research manageable. But what is a hypothesis in research? A ***hypothesis*** is a predictive statement that represents the researcher's tentative answer to his statement of the research problem. Aside from ensuring clarity, the hypothesis serves the following function in research: - *It provides focus to the study.* - *It tells the researcher what data to gather.* - *It enhances objectivity in the study.* - *It enables the researcher to contribute to the formulation of a theory and bridge the gaps in the body of knowledge.* When constructing a hypothesis, you must remember that the hypothesis should be: - *simple and specific* - *stated in an empirically testable form* - *related to the existing body of knowledge and* - *an indication of the specific nature of connection between or among variables.* As already emphasized, the hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction. This prediction can be stated either in the null or alternative form. A ***null hypothesis*** (H0) is a statement indicating the non-existence of difference, relationship, or association between two or more variables or factors. On the other hand, an ***alternative hypothesis*** (H1) states the nature of the connection between or among the variables that researcher expects. Between these two, the null hypothesis is often used in many researches in the academe since no statistical test has been developed in testing the alternative or research hypothesis. Let us examine examples on how the hypothesis is stated in the null and alternative forms. **Example 1** Since hypothesis testing is what research is all about, a careful and precise statement of research hypothesis is vital for a research project to be worthwhile. **Developing The Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks Of The Study** **Formulating the Theoretical Framework** The ***theoretical framework*** of a study is the structure that can hold or support the theory of a research work (Leveriza, 1997). This framework presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists. Thus, the theoretical framework is a theory that serves as a basis for conducting the study. Why should a researcher formulate his theoretical framework? There are three reasons for this. - It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study. - It provides the researcher a general framework for data collection and analysis. - It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental research methods. In a study on the personal values and job performance of the non-teaching personnel in one higher education institution in the NCR. Bermejo (1998) presented his theoretical framework in this manner. Note: In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as height, age, species, or exam score. In scientific research, we often want to study the effect of one variable on another one. For example, you might want to test the personal values and job performance of the non-teaching personnel in one higher education institution in the NCR. The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect relationship are called the independent and dependent variables. - The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study. - The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable. The paradigm of the theoretical framework is shown in *Figure I*. **Figure l** **Paradigm of the Theoretical Framework** In a research proposal submitted to the author by one of his students on the personality preferences and professional satisfaction, the theoretical framework was presented in this manner. In a study on unemployment and criminality in two barangays in one of the key cities in the National Capital Region, the theoretical framework was presented in the following manner: In a research on the mediation skills and values of barangay chairmen in Pasay City, the researcher presented his theoretical framework in this way: Based on the foregoing examples, how was the theoretical framework formulated? An analysis of these examples reveals that the theoretical framework can be presented by: - Specifying the theory used/to be used as basis for the study - Mentioning the proponents of the theory - Citing the main points emphasized in the theory - Supporting the researcher's exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts - Illustrating the theoretical framework by means of a paradigm or diagram - Ending up by reiterating the theoretical proposition of the study **Formulating the Conceptual Framewor**k After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher has to develop the conceptual framework of his study. While the theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalization of this theory. Some researchers consider it as the direction of the study or the researcher's own position on the problem. It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with modifications to suit the inquiry. It is, therefore, the researcher's model patterned after previous models that he had analyzed leading to the creation of a new conceptual framework. Aside from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework, the researcher can show relationships of the different constructs that he wants to investigate. A construct, according to Arboleda (1991) is any clearly defined concept. Examine a sample conceptual framework used by Hernandez in 1998 for his study on the correlates of students' performance in Mathematics. **Figure 2 Correlates of Academic Performance in High School Mathematics** In the research proposal on personality preferences as correlates to teachers' professional satisfaction, the conceptual framework was presented in the following manner. **Figure 3** shows the conceptual framework of the study. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **INPUT** | **PROCESS** | **OUTPUT** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Profile of the grade | Analysis of the | Better | | school teachers in | personal profile of | | | terms of selected | the respondents | Understanding of | | personal attributes | | | | | Description and | The Grade School | | Personality | analysis of their | | | preferences of the | personality | Teachers as | | respondent | preferences | | | | | Educators | | Job satisfaction | Description and | | | profile | analysis of their | And | | | professional | | | | satisfaction profile | Individuals | | | | | | | Correlational | | | | analysis of teachers | | | | personality | | | | preferences and | | | | professional | | | | satisfaction | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **A Model for Analyzing the Relationship Between Teachers' Personality Preferences and their Professional Satisfaction** Another example of how the conceptual framework is presented below. This was used by Lim (2010) in his study on the mediation skills and values of barangay chairmen. Figure shows the conceptual framework of the study +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **INPUT** | **PROCESS** | **OUTPUT** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Moderate Skills | Comparative Analysis | Speedy and Fair | | | of the Barangay | Resolution of | | Mediation Values | Chairmen's: | Conflicts at the | | | | Barangay Level | | Problems Encountered | Mediation Skills | | | in the Implementation | | | | of Barangay Justice | Mediation Values | | | System | | | | | Analysis of Problems | | | | Encountered in the | | | | Implementation of | | | | Barangay Justice | | | | System | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Figure 1** **Conceptual Framework of the Study** Based on the example cited earlier, what procedures did the researcher follow in presenting the conceptual framework of the study? You will note that the following were done in the process: - Citing the conceptual model or paradigm - Identifying the independent variables of the study - Mentioning the dependent variable and its indicators and categories - Pointing out the intervening variables that can explain variances in the dependent and independent variables of the study - Showing the direction of the study.