Bio Lab Final Study Guide PDF

Study Guide: Lab 11 - Photosynthesis Key Concepts 1. Photosynthesis Overview: ○ Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2​ ○ Takes place in three stages: Capturing sunlight energy. Using the energy to produce ATP and NADPH. Conver...

Study Guide: Lab 11 - Photosynthesis Key Concepts 1. Photosynthesis Overview: ○ Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2​ ○ Takes place in three stages: Capturing sunlight energy. Using the energy to produce ATP and NADPH. Converting CO₂ to carbohydrates using ATP and NADPH. 2. Pigments and Light Absorption: ○ Main Pigments: Chlorophyll a and b (absorb red and blue light, reflect green). ○ Accessory Pigments: Carotenoids (yellow, orange): Help capture additional light. Anthocyanins (red, purple): Found in vacuoles, typically not photosynthetic. ○ Photosynthesis and Light: Pigments absorb specific wavelengths, allowing photosynthesis to occur most efficiently under red and blue light. 3. Paper Chromatography: ○ Separates pigments based on polarity: Polar molecules bind to the stationary phase (paper). Non-polar molecules dissolve in the mobile phase (solvent) and travel further. ○ Pigment Polarity Order: Most Polar: Chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll a. Xanthophyll. Least Polar: Beta-Carotene. 4. Absorption Spectrum: ○ Shows the wavelengths of light each pigment absorbs. ○ Predicted Peaks: Chlorophyll a: 400–500 nm and 600–700 nm. Chlorophyll b: 400–500 nm and 600–700 nm. Carotenoids: 400–500 nm. Lab Procedures 1. Wavelengths of Light in Photosynthesis (Exercise 6.1): ○ Hypothesis: Starch production is highest in areas exposed to blue and red light; no starch under green or black filters. ○ Procedure:  Use leaves covered with different color filters. Perform starch tests with iodine to evaluate photosynthesis. 2. Pigment Identification with Coleus Leaves (Exercise 6.2): ○ Compare pigment locations (green = chlorophyll, purple = anthocyanins + chlorophyll, pink = anthocyanins, white = no pigment). ○ Test for starch presence to correlate photosynthetic activity with pigments. 3. Paper Chromatography of Pigments (Exercise 6.3): ○ Extract pigments from spinach. ○ Separate pigments using paper chromatography. ○ Rank pigments by polarity based on distance traveled. 4. Absorption Spectrum (Exercise 6.4): ○ Use a spectrophotometer to measure light absorption by extracted pigments. ○ Record and graph data to determine peak absorption wavelengths. Key Terms Chloroplasts: Organelles where photosynthesis occurs. Thylakoid Membrane: Location of pigments and light-dependent reactions. Iodine Test: Indicates starch (photosynthesis product) presence. Polar vs. Non-Polar: Determines how pigments interact in chromatography. Lab Results and Analysis Predictions for Starch Tests: ○ Green filters: No starch. ○ Blue/Red filters: Some starch. ○ Black filters: No starch. Chromatography Order: ○ Beta-Carotene travels furthest (least polar). ○ Chlorophyll b stays closest to the origin (most polar). Absorption Peaks: ○ Chlorophyll a and b absorb most at red and blue wavelengths. ○ Carotenoids absorb in the blue-green range. Study Guide: Lab 12 - Mitosis and Meiosis Key Concepts 1. Mitosis vs. Meiosis: ○ Mitosis: Produces two genetically identical diploid cells for growth and repair.  ○ Meiosis: Produces four genetically diverse haploid cells, essential for sexual reproduction. 2. Phases of Mitosis: ○ Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope disintegrates, spindle fibers form. ○ Prometaphase: Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers via kinetochores. ○ Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate. ○ Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. ○ Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms; chromosomes decondense. ○ Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides (cleavage furrow in animal cells; cell plate in plant cells). 3. Phases of Meiosis: ○ Meiosis I: Reduction division separates homologous chromosomes. Crossing over during Prophase I (chiasmata form). Independent assortment during Metaphase I. ○ Meiosis II: Separates sister chromatids (similar to mitosis). 4. Key Differences: ○ Synapsis and crossing over occur only in meiosis. ○ Meiosis involves two divisions (Meiosis I and II), while mitosis involves one. ○ Mitosis produces diploid cells; meiosis produces haploid cells. 5. Cytokinesis Differences: ○ Animal cells: Actin filaments form a cleavage furrow. ○ Plant cells: Vesicles form a cell plate leading to a new cell wall. Key Terms Diploid (2n) and Haploid (n). Homologous Chromosomes: Paired chromosomes with genes for the same traits. Sister Chromatids: Identical copies of a chromosome connected at the centromere. Chromatin vs. Chromosome: Chromatin is uncoiled DNA; chromosomes are condensed. Kinetochore, Spindle, Centrosome. Lab Exercises Overview 1. Modeling Mitosis and Meiosis: ○ Use beads or models to simulate each stage. ○ Focus on chromosome behavior in interphase, mitosis, and meiosis. 2. Microscopic Observation: ○ Identify stages of mitosis in onion root tips and whitefish blastula. ○ Observe differences in plant and animal cytokinesis. 3. Sordaria fimicola Experiment:  ○ Study crossing over by analyzing spore arrangement. ○ Crossing over changes the sequence of spore colors. Study Guide: Lab 13 - Genetics and Data Analysis Key Concepts 1. Genetics Basics: ○ Gene: Unit of hereditary information located at a specific chromosome position (locus). ○ Alleles: Variants of a gene; can be dominant or recessive. Homozygous: Two identical alleles (AA or aa). Heterozygous: Two different alleles (Aa). ○ Genotype: Genetic makeup (e.g., AA, Aa). ○ Phenotype: Observable traits (e.g., purple flowers). 2. Mendelian Genetics: ○ Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during meiosis. ○ Law of Independent Assortment: Genes on different chromosomes assort independently. ○ Monohybrid crosses show a 3:1 phenotypic ratio (dominant:recessive). ○ Dihybrid crosses show a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio. 3. Chi-Square Analysis: ○ Tests if observed data align with expected Mendelian ratios. ○ Formula: χ2=∑(O−E)2E\chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O - E)^2}{E}χ2=∑E(O−E)2​ OOO: Observed value. EEE: Expected value. ○ Degrees of freedom: Number of phenotypes - 1. ○ A p-value below 0.05 indicates significant deviation from expected values. 4. Human Blood Types (ABO System): ○ Determined by three alleles (IAI^AIA, IBI^BIB, iii): IAI^AIA and IBI^BIB are dominant; iii is recessive. IAIBI^A I^BIAIB individuals have AB blood (codominance). iiiiii individuals have type O blood. ○ Antigens and Antibodies: Type A: A antigen, anti-B antibodies. Type B: B antigen, anti-A antibodies. Type AB: Both antigens, no antibodies (universal recipient). Type O: No antigens, both antibodies (universal donor). ○ Agglutination occurs when antibodies react with incompatible blood antigens.  5. Blood Typing and Paternity: ○ Determine genotypes based on phenotype compatibility. ○ Exclude potential fathers using blood group inheritance. 6. Drosophila Chromosomes: ○ Giant salivary gland chromosomes in Drosophila larvae allow visualization of chromosomal banding and gene expression. Lab Exercises 1. Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses: ○ Predict F1 and F2 genotypes/phenotypes. ○ Complete Punnett squares and calculate ratios. 2. Chi-Square Test: ○ Calculate expected values based on Mendelian ratios. ○ Compare observed vs. expected results to determine significance. 3. Blood Typing: ○ Use sera to test agglutination and identify blood types. ○ Determine transfusion compatibility. 4. Paternity Testing: ○ Use child and mother blood types to infer possible paternal genotypes. 5. Drosophila Chromosome Observation: ○ Use a microscope to analyze salivary gland chromosomes and correlate banding patterns with gene expression. Key Terms Locus, Alleles, Homozygous, Heterozygous, Dominant, Recessive. Genotype, Phenotype, Punnett Square. Chi-Square Test, Degrees of Freedom. ABO Blood Group, Antigens, Antibodies, Agglutination. Study Guide: Lab 14 - Molecular Biology (Recombinant DNA Technology) Key Concepts  1. Recombinant DNA Technology: ○ Combines DNA from different organisms to create transgenic organisms. ○ Restriction Enzymes (REs): Cut DNA at specific sequences (palindromic restriction sites). Example: EcoRI cuts at 5’-GAATTC-3’. ○ DNA Ligase: Joins DNA fragments at sticky ends by forming covalent bonds. 2. Plasmids: ○ Small, circular, extrachromosomal DNA in bacteria. ○ Example: pUC19 plasmid (2,686 base pairs). ○ Used in experiments to study DNA fragment sizes after digestion. 3. Gel Electrophoresis: ○ Separates DNA fragments by size using an agarose gel. ○ DNA migrates toward the positive electrode due to its negative charge (phosphate groups). ○ Ladder: Molecular weight standard used to estimate fragment sizes. ○ Dyes: SYBR Green: Fluoresces under blue light. Methylene Blue, Bromophenol Blue: Visible with light box. 4. DNA Mapping: ○ Involves reconstructing a plasmid map using single and double digests. ○ Double digests cut large fragments further into smaller pieces. Lab Procedures 1. Restriction Digest: ○ Digest pUC19 with Ava II and Pvu II enzymes. ○ Mix DNA with buffers, REs, and water, then incubate at 37°C for 30-60 minutes. 2. Gel Electrophoresis Setup: ○ Prepare agarose gel and load wells: Include uncut DNA, single digests (Ava II and Pvu II), and double digest. Use 100 bp and 1 kb ladders for reference. ○ Run gel for 45-60 minutes until dye is ~2 cm from the bottom. 3. Analyze Gel Results: ○ Measure migration distance for each DNA fragment. ○ Compare with ladder bands to estimate fragment sizes. 4. Construct a DNA Map: ○ Use fragment sizes to determine restriction sites and plasmid structure. ○ Combine data from single and double digests. Key Terms Restriction Enzymes (REs): Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences. Sticky Ends: Overhanging DNA ends created by REs for recombination. Plasmid Mapping: Determining the location of restriction sites on circular DNA. Standard Curve: Graph used to estimate DNA sizes based on migration distances. Study Guide: Lab 15 - Modeling DNA Replication and Gene Expression Key Concepts 1. Structure of DNA: ○ Double Helix: Two strands running anti-parallel (5'-3' and 3'-5') with complementary base pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) via 2 hydrogen bonds. Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) via 3 hydrogen bonds. ○ Sugar-Phosphate Backbone: Provides structural integrity. ○ Nitrogenous Bases: Carry genetic information. 2. Replication: ○ Semi-Conservative Model: Each new DNA molecule has one parent strand and one newly synthesized strand. ○ Enzymes: Helicase: Unzips the DNA double helix. DNA Polymerase: Adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing strand. Ligase: Joins Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. ○ Leading Strand: Synthesized continuously. ○ Lagging Strand: Synthesized in Okazaki fragments and joined by ligase. 3. Transcription: ○ Converts DNA into RNA (mRNA). ○ Differences from Replication: Only a segment of DNA (gene) is copied. Produces single-stranded RNA. RNA contains Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T). 4. Translation: ○ Converts mRNA into a protein at the ribosome. ○ Codons: Three-nucleotide sequences on mRNA coding for amino acids (e.g., AUG = Methionine).  ○ tRNA: Matches codons with their corresponding amino acids via anticodons. ○ Stages: Initiation: Ribosome assembles at the start codon (AUG). Elongation: Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds as ribosome reads codons. Termination: Stops at a stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA), releasing the protein. 5. Mutations: ○ Base Substitution: Silent: No change in the amino acid sequence. Missense: Substitutes one amino acid for another. Nonsense: Introduces a stop codon, truncating the protein. ○ Frameshift: Insertions or deletions that shift the reading frame. Can cause extensive changes in the protein sequence. Lab Procedures 1. Modeling Replication: ○ Demonstrate how the leading and lagging strands are synthesized. ○ Show the role of helicase, DNA polymerase, and ligase. 2. Transcription: ○ Use a DNA template to transcribe RNA. ○ Identify complementary base pairs (A-U, T-A, C-G, G-C). 3. Translation Simulation: ○ Translate mRNA codons into amino acids using the codon table. ○ Assemble a polypeptide chain during elongation. 4. Mutation Analysis: ○ Identify and classify mutations as silent, missense, or nonsense. ○ Observe the effects of frameshift mutations. Key Terms Replication Fork: Y-shaped region where DNA is being replicated. Okazaki Fragments: Short DNA segments on the lagging strand. mRNA, tRNA, rRNA: Types of RNA involved in gene expression. Codon: mRNA triplet that codes for an amino acid. Anticodon: tRNA triplet that pairs with an mRNA codon. Study Guide: Lab 16 - Population Genetics and Evolution (Hardy-Weinberg Theorem) Key Concepts 1. Population Genetics: ○ Population: A group of organisms of the same species in the same area capable of interbreeding. ○ Gene Pool: Total collection of alleles in a population. ○ Evolution: Change in allele frequencies in a population over time (populations evolve, individuals do not). 2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE): ○ If certain conditions are met, allele frequencies remain constant across generations (no evolution occurs). ○ HWE Equation: p^2+2pq+q^2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1 ppp: Frequency of dominant allele. qqq: Frequency of recessive allele. p2p^2p2: Frequency of homozygous dominant genotype. q2q^2q2: Frequency of homozygous recessive genotype. 2pq2pq2pq: Frequency of heterozygous genotype. 3. Conditions for HWE: ○ Infinitely large population (no genetic drift). ○ Random mating. ○ No mutations. ○ No migration (gene flow). ○ No natural selection (equal fitness among genotypes). 4. Agents of Evolutionary Change: ○ Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies, significant in small populations. Founder Effect: Few individuals establish a new population. Bottleneck Effect: Sudden population size reduction alters allele frequencies. ○ Non-Random Mating: Preference for certain phenotypes. ○ Mutations: Changes in DNA sequences that can introduce new alleles. ○ Gene Flow: Movement of alleles between populations. ○ Natural Selection: Favors traits increasing survival and reproductive success. 5. Types of Selection:  ○ Directional: Favors one extreme phenotype. ○ Disruptive: Favors both extremes, eliminates intermediates. ○ Stabilizing: Favors intermediates, eliminates extremes. Lab Procedures 1. Hardy-Weinberg Calculations: ○ Determine allele frequencies (ppp and qqq) and use them to calculate expected genotype frequencies. ○ Compare observed vs. expected frequencies to check if a population is in HWE. 2. Chi-Square Test: ○ Evaluate if deviations from expected frequencies are statistically significant. ○ Formula: χ2=∑(O−E)2E\chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O - E)^2}{E}χ2=∑E(O−E)2​ OOO: Observed frequency. EEE: Expected frequency. ○ Degrees of Freedom (df): Number of phenotypes - 1. 3. Evolutionary Simulations: ○ Use provided simulations to observe effects of genetic drift, selection, and migration on allele frequencies. Practice Problems 1. HWE Example: ○ p=0.6p = 0.6p=0.6, q=0.4q = 0.4q=0.4. What are the expected genotype frequencies? p2=0.36p^2 = 0.36p2=0.36 2pq=0.482pq = 0.482pq=0.48 q2=0.16q^2 = 0.16q2=0.16 2. Chi-Square Test: ○ Observed: 90 red (p2p^2p2), 40 pink (2pq2pq2pq), 10 white (q2q^2q2). ○ Expected (from HWE): Red: 0.36×140=50.40.36 \times 140 = 50.40.36×140=50.4 Pink: 0.48×140=67.20.48 \times 140 = 67.20.48×140=67.2 White: 0.16×140=22.40.16 \times 140 = 22.40.16×140=22.4. ○ Is the population evolving? Key Terms  Fitness: Measure of an individual's reproductive success. Founder Effect: Loss of genetic variation in a new population. Bottleneck Effect: Reduced genetic diversity due to population decline. Heterozygote Advantage: When heterozygotes have higher fitness than homozygotes (e.g., sickle cell anemia and malaria). Study Guide: Lab 17 - Bacteriology Key Concepts 1. Bacteria Basics: ○ Prokaryotes: Unicellular organisms without membrane-bound organelles. DNA is circular and located in the nucleoid region; plasmids may be present. ○ Reproduction: Binary fission (asexual). ○ Structures: Cell Wall: Made of peptidoglycan. Capsule: Sticky protective layer. Fimbriae and Pili: Aid in attachment to surfaces or other bacteria. 2. Aseptic Techniques: ○ Disinfect workspaces before and after experiments. ○ Sterilize tools before and after use (e.g., inoculating loops). ○ Proper disposal of contaminated materials in autoclave bags. ○ Wash hands thoroughly after handling bacterial cultures. 3. Bacterial Classification: ○ Colony Characteristics: Shape: Punctiform, round, filamentous, irregular. Margins: Smooth, curled, wavy, lobate, filamentous. Surface: Smooth, wrinkled, shiny, dull, concentric. Pigmentation and opacity: Opaque, translucent, transparent. ○ Morphology: Shapes: Cocci (round), Bacilli (rod), Spirilla (spiral). ○ Gram Staining: Differentiates bacteria by cell wall composition. Gram-positive: Thick peptidoglycan layer, stains purple. Gram-negative: Thin peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane, stains pink.  4. Streak Plate Technique: ○ Serial dilution of bacteria across agar plates to isolate colonies. 5. Controlling Bacterial Growth: ○ Disinfectants: Decontaminate nonliving objects (e.g., bleach, isopropyl alcohol). ○ Antiseptics: Inhibit growth on living tissue (e.g., Listerine). ○ Antibiotics: Target bacterial growth within living organisms. 6. Zone of Inhibition: ○ Indicates effectiveness of antimicrobial agents. ○ Larger zones = higher bacterial sensitivity to the agent. Lab Procedures 1. Gram Staining: ○ Steps: 1. Crystal violet: Stains all cells. 2. Iodine: Fixes the dye in Gram-positive bacteria. 3. Acetone: Decolorizes Gram-negative bacteria. 4. Safranin: Counterstains Gram-negative bacteria. ○ Results: 1. Purple: Gram-positive. 2. Pink: Gram-negative. 2. Streak Plate Method: ○ Purpose: Isolate individual bacterial colonies. ○ Procedure: 1. Swab bacterial culture onto one-third of the agar plate. 2. Sterilize inoculating loop, zigzag through swabbed area, and streak another third of the plate. 3. Repeat for the remaining third. 3. Bacterial Lawn Preparation: ○ Cover agar plate completely with bacterial culture. ○ Add antibiotic or antiseptic/disinfectant disks. 4. Measuring Zones of Inhibition: ○ Incubate plates for 24 hours. ○ Measure the diameter of cleared areas around disks to assess antimicrobial effectiveness. Key Terms  Agar Plate: Gel medium used for bacterial growth. Binary Fission: Asexual bacterial reproduction. Capsule: Protective layer outside the cell wall. Zone of Inhibition: Area around antimicrobial agents with no bacterial growth. Gram Staining: Technique to classify bacteria by cell wall structure. Study Guide: Lab 18 - Protists Key Concepts 1. Protist Basics: ○ Eukaryotic: Have a nucleus and organelles, highly diverse group. ○ Include all eukaryotes except land plants, animals, and fungi. ○ Can be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular. ○ Exhibit diverse life strategies: Autotrophs: Use photosynthesis (e.g., algae). Heterotrophs: Consume other organisms (e.g., protozoans, slime molds). Mixotrophs: Combine autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. ○ Reproduction: Sexual or asexual. 2. Phylogenetics: ○ Monophyletic Group: Contains all descendants of a common ancestor. ○ Paraphyletic Group: Contains some, but not all, descendants of a common ancestor. ○ Polyphyletic Group: Grouping without including a common ancestor. Protist Taxonomy 1. Supergroup Excavata: ○ Clade Euglenozoa: Example: Trypanosoma: Parasitic, transmitted by fleas. Found in blood; moves via an undulating membrane. 2. Supergroup SAR: ○ Clade Stramenopila: Example: Diatoms: Unicellular or colonial algae with silica cell walls.  Major oxygen producers (~20% annually). Example: Brown Algae (Sargassum): Multicellular, autotrophic, marine. Contain fucoxanthin (carotenoid pigment). ○ Clade Alveolata: Example: Paramecia: Move and feed using cilia. Use contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation. Reproduce by binary fission; conjugation introduces genetic variation. ○ Clade Rhizarians: Example: Foraminiferans: Have calcium carbonate tests with pseudopodia. Symbiotic relationship with algae. Example: Radiolarians: Silica-based spherical tests. Use pseudopodia for phagocytosis. 3. Supergroup Unikonta: ○ Clade Amoebozoa: Example: Amoeba: Move via lobe-shaped pseudopodia. Heterotrophic; live in freshwater or marine habitats. 4. Supergroup Archaeplastida: ○ Clade Chlorophyta: Examples: Spirogyra, Ulva: Green algae with chlorophylls a and b. Spirogyra: Filamentous with spiral chloroplasts. Ulva: Multicellular "sea lettuce." ○ Clade Rhodophyta: Example: Red Algae: Contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin pigments. Used as a source of agar; cell walls made of agarose and cellulose. Lab Procedures 1. Observation: ○ Use a microscope to identify and sketch protist specimens. ○ Record features like morphology, structures, and ecological roles. 2. Key Characteristics:  ○ Identify structures like cilia (paramecia), pseudopodia (amoeba), or silica tests (diatoms). 3. Ecological Roles: ○ Examples: Green algae: Primary producers. Foraminiferans: Symbiosis with algae. 4. Economic Importance: ○ Examples: Red algae: Source of agar. Brown algae: Provide habitats and are used in food products. Key Terms Cilia: Hair-like structures for movement and feeding. Pseudopodia: Extensions of cytoplasm for movement or feeding. Test: A protective shell made of silica or calcium carbonate. Mixotrophy: Using both photosynthesis and consumption for nutrition. Study Guide: Lab 19 - Fungi Key Concepts 1. Fungi Basics: ○ Kingdom Fungi: Mostly multicellular, with some unicellular forms (e.g., yeast). Heterotrophic: Absorb nutrients after external digestion. Cell walls made of chitin. ○ Growth and Structure: Hyphae: Filamentous structures, can form dense masses called mycelium. Reproductive Structures: Sexual: Gametangia, ascocarps, basidiocarps. Asexual: Sporangia, conidiophores. 2. Fungal Reproduction: ○ Asexual: Spores are produced via mitosis. Conidia: Non-motile spores.  ○ Sexual: Plasmogamy: Fusion of cytoplasm from two hyphae. Karyogamy: Fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus. Resulting zygotes undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Phyla of Fungi 1. Phylum Zygomycota: ○ Characteristics: Haploid hyphae fuse to form diploid zygospores. Fast-growing molds. ○ Examples: Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold): Observed on slides. Pilobolus crystallinus (shotgun mold). 2. Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi): ○ Characteristics: Sexual reproduction in asci, producing ascospores. Asexual reproduction via conidia at the tips of conidiophores. ○ Examples: Peziza: Cup fungus observed in wet mounts and slides. Penicillium: Source of antibiotics, observed as conidia. Morels: Edible sac fungi. 3. Phylum Basidiomycota (Club Fungi): ○ Characteristics: Dikaryotic phase is long-lived. Sexual reproduction via basidia, producing basidiospores. Fruiting bodies called basidiocarps (e.g., mushrooms). ○ Examples: Coprinus: Observed as cross-sections on slides. 4. Imperfect Fungi (Deuteromycota): ○ Not a formal taxonomic group. ○ Reproduce asexually via conidia. ○ Many cause diseases (e.g., skin infections). ○ Examples: Aspergillus: Observed as conidia. 5. Lichens: ○ Symbiotic association between fungi and algae/cyanobacteria. ○ Three forms: Crustose: Crusty.  Foliose: Leafy. Fruticose: Shrubby. ○ Ecological Role: Pioneer species in harsh environments. Sensitive to pollution. ○ Fungal partner provides structure; photosynthetic partner provides energy. Lab Observations and Activities 1. Microscopic Observations: ○ Rhizopus: Zygosporangia and hyphae at various magnifications. ○ Peziza: Asci with ascospores. ○ Coprinus: Basidia on gills of basidiocarp. 2. Fungal Cultures: ○ Observe plates of Penicillium and Aspergillus for conidia. 3. Lichen Examination: ○ Identify the three forms (crustose, foliose, fruticose). ○ Observe cross-sections of lichen thallus to identify fungal and photosynthetic components. Key Terms Hyphae, Mycelium: Structures for growth and nutrient absorption. Plasmogamy, Karyogamy: Stages of sexual reproduction. Ascocarp, Basidiocarp: Fruiting bodies in ascomycota and basidiomycota. Conidia: Asexual spores. Zygosporangium: Sexual structure in zygomycota.