Deductive and Inductive Approaches PDF
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Summary
This document discusses deductive and inductive approaches to teaching, contrasting them in terms of how learners learn concepts and rules. It also introduces language acquisition theories like the input and output hypotheses.
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Unit 2 Deductive and inductive approaches: ❖ Deductive Approach: Inadeductiveapproach,thelessonstartswiththepresentationofageneralrule,concept,or principle, followed by specific examples. The idea is to provide learners with a clear...
Unit 2 Deductive and inductive approaches: ❖ Deductive Approach: Inadeductiveapproach,thelessonstartswiththepresentationofageneralrule,concept,or principle, followed by specific examples. The idea is to provide learners with a clear understanding of the rule first, and then they apply it to specific instances. It'satop-down approach, moving from the general to the specific. - Example of Deductive Approach: Present a grammar rule: "All living things need water." Provide examples: "Plants need water. Animals need water." ❖ Inductive Approach: Conversely,inaninductiveapproach,thelessonbeginswithspecificexamples,andstudents are guided to discover or induce the general rule or concept. It's a bottom-up approach, moving from specific instances to a general understanding. - Example of Inductive Approach: Show examples: "Cats, dogs, and elephants all need water." Guide students to formulate the rule: "What do these animals have in common? They all need water." Comparison: ● Deductive: Provides a clear rule or concept first, followed by examples. ● Inductive: Presents specific examples first, leading to the discovery or induction of a general rule. Consideration: ● Deductive teaching might be more suitable when learners need a clear structure or when dealing with complex concepts. ● Inductive teaching can promote critical thinking and a deeper understanding as students actively participate in the learning process. 1 Unit 2 Main Second Language Acquisition SLA theories: ● Input hypothesis: Learners acquire (language learning and acquisition is not the same) language best when they receive comprehensible input that is slightly above their current level of proficiency (Krashen, 1985). The main issue is that you can’t measure the student's current level. ○ This theorysetsthatyouonlyneedcomprehensibleinputandonelevelmore (i+1) ○ Learners acquire the Target Language in a similar sequence as their Native Language ○ Focus primarily on meaning ● Output hypothesis: Also proposed by Krashen, this theory emphasizes the importance of producing language (output) in the language-learning process. It suggests that producing language, even if imperfect, contributes to language development.Focuses on form. ○ Krashen'sOutputHypothesissuggeststhatlanguageproduction(speakingand writing) plays acrucialroleinlanguagedevelopment.Evenimperfectoutput contributes to the learning process. ■ Noticing- conscious use: Learners notice a difference between what they want to say and what they are actually able to say ■ Hypothesistesting:AstudentlearningEnglishmightsay,"YesterdayI go to the store," even though the correct form is "went." The act of producing language helps the learner internalize the correct structure over time. ■ Metalinguistic relation: Output Hypothesis and metalinguistics are connected through the reflective and analytical aspects of language production. Engaging in language output requires learners to think about the structureandcorrectnessoftheirlanguageuse,contributing to metalinguistic awareness and development. ○ Focuses mainly on meaning and form ● Noticing Hypothesis: “Attention is what allows speakers to become aware of a mismatchorgap[…]betweenwhattheyproduceandwhatproficienttargetlanguage speakers produce”. (2001: 6). Schmidt'sNoticingHypothesisproposesthatlearners 2 Unit 2 must consciously notice linguistic features in the input for acquisition to occur. It highlights the importance of attention to form. ○ A learner actively pays attention to specific grammatical structures while reading or listening. For instance, they consciously focus on verb tenses or word order in sentences. ○ We need students to pay attention and link the processes. A French learner reading a text in French might consciously notice the use ofthesubjunctive mood and make mental connections to its usage. ○ Focuses mainly on form/forms (form: attention to language in communication and forms focuses on out-of-context explicit items of grammar.formSwouldbeteachingthempresentperfectbutthenIwouldfocus on form while checking a writing where they have to use it) ● Interaction hypothesis: Significance ofcommunication,andmeaningfulinteraction between learners and speakers of the targetlanguagewhoimprovetheirproficiency when they engage in meaningful interactions, particularly those that involve negotiation of meaning. Long's Interaction Hypothesis asserts that language is best acquired through interactive communication. Meaningful interaction provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning. ○ Particularly when they engage innegotiation of meaning. ■ Clarification Requests, Confirmation Checks, Repetition and Paraphrasing, Recasts and Corrections, Gestures and Visual Cues ○ Pushed output: refers to instances in language learning where learners are actively encouraged or required to produce language beyond their current proficiency level. This can involvesituationswherelearnersarepromptedto speak or write in the target language, even if the linguistic structures or vocabulary are somewhat challenging for them. (not letting the students use dictionaries may force them to use this) Explicit and implicit knowledge: ● Explicitknowledgeisconscious,verbalizable,andcanbeeasilyarticulated.Itrefers to knowledge that a person is aware of and can explicitly express. This type of knowledge is typically characterized by a clear understanding of rules, facts, or information. 3 Unit 2 ○ Example: Knowing the grammatical rules for forming past tense verbs or being able to explain the steps in solving a mathematical equation. ● Implicit knowledge: Implicitknowledgeisoftenunconscious,difficulttoverbalize, and acquired through exposure and experience. It refers to knowledge that is more intuitive and may be challenging to explain explicitly. Learners may use this knowledge effectively without necessarily being able to describe the underlying rules. ○ Example: A native speaker's intuitive understanding of grammatical correctness without being able to articulate specific rules. Also, the motor skillsinvolvedinridingabicycle,whichcanbechallengingtoexplainbutare acquired through practice. Ellis (2005) “Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledgeoftheL2whilenotneglectingexplicitknowledge”.Implicitknowledgeunderlies theabilitytocommunicatefluentlyandconfidentlyinanL2whichistheultimategoalofany instructional programme. - It’s like driving a car, first you think about it too much until it becomes basically unconscious. - If we focused only on forms we would only focus on implicit knowledge ● Interface hypothesis: ○ Non-interface position (Krashen, 1981) ■ Implicit knowledge cannot be developed from explicit knowledge. They are separated knowledge stores. ○ Interface position (Dekeyser, 1998) ■ Implicitknowledgecanbedevelopedfromexplicitknowledgethrough plentiful communicative practice ○ Weak interface position (Ellis, 1993) ■ “Explicit knowledge of a grammatical structure makes it more likely learners will attend to the structure in the input and carry out the cognitivecomparisonbetweenwhattheyobserveintheinputandtheir own output” 4 Unit 2 From the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) to the current Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), language teaching methods have evolved adapting themselves through social, political and psychological influences. Evolution of english as a foreign language in teaching methods Evolution of language teaching methods: ● Grammar translation method (structural method) ○ To develop students’ mental ability and ability of translating and reading literarytexts.Itwasadeductivemethodinwhichstudentswereusuallytaught in their mother tongue. ○ The usual exercises were grammar drills and translation of short sentences from L1 to Latin and also from Latin to L1. Once they were capable of translating sentences, they continued with longer texts which were usually classical and literary. ○ More attention was paid to formthantocontentandverylittleattentionwas paid to pronunciation or communicative aspects. Despite the appearance of many new methods, this is still the most widely used for Foreign Language Teaching (SLT). ● Direct method ○ Also known as the natural method, it was developed as a reaction to the Grammar Translation Method. It is taught entirely in L2 inordertocreatea natural environment. ○ It relates concepts like ‘experience’ , ‘word’ and ‘thought’ with those of ‘language’, ‘idea’ and ‘expression’ and its main aim is communication. In order to reach the aim, the class is carried out completely in L2, no mother tongue is used for translations; instead of that, each piece of vocabulary is explained in L2, through dramatization, relation of concepts or the use of pictures or objects. 5 Unit 2 ○ Itwasconceivedtoimitatethenaturalacquisitionmethod,whichisthereason why it is also called ‘Natural Method’. Audiolingualism emerged to correct some failures of the Direct Method. ● Audio-lingual Method (structural method) ○ Originally, the aim of this method was to provide students with a series of basic units of communication so they were able tocommunicatewithnative speakers at a basic level within a fewweeks.Inordertodoso,classeswere conductedtotallyinEnglish,andconsistedintherepetitionofsinglesentences and dialogue drills. Its main focus was placed on speaking and listening skills. ○ This method and its psychological basis were strongly criticized by many linguists, the most critic of which was NoamChomsky,whopointedoutthe strong limitations of structuralist linguistics and behavioural theories. ● The silent way (interactive method) ○ Itwascreatedinthe1960sbyC.Gattegnoandowesitsnametothefactthat one of its key elements is the almost total absence of speech production coming from the teacher: studentsaretheonesspeaking90%ofthetimeor more. Some physical elements help the teacher in class, such as coloured Cuisenaire rods, sound-color charts, wordchartsandFidelcharts.Cuisenaire rods,whichwereoriginallyusedtoteachMaths,helpstudentslearncolorsand numbers at a first stage, but are also used to teach grammatical relations. ● Community language Learning (interactive method) ○ Twomainrolesareassignedinthismethod:theteacherasacounselorandthe student as a client. The role of teacher requires a bigger effort thaninother methods due to the fact that a counselor has to be aware of their students’ feelings, thoughts and motivation. There is no syllabus or textbook to help structure the lessons. It is also more demanding for students,but,sincethey aretheoneschoosingthetopicsofeachlesson,thismethodisverymotivating for them. ● Suggestopedia (interactive method) ○ Thismethodismoreteacher-controlled,especiallyasregardsenvironmentand theformandquantityofinput,butnotsomuchastobeteacher-directive.The input students receive is key, for example, it is usual for them to listen to classical music while the teacher is explaining. 6 Unit 2 ● Total physical response (interactive method) ○ Basedonthecorrelationbetweenlanguageandmovement.AsstatedbyAsher (1996):“Areasonablehypothesisisthatthebrainandthenervoussystemare biologicallyprogrammedtoacquirelanguage,eitherthefirstorthesecondin a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening beforespeakingandthemodeistosynchronizelanguagewiththeindividual’s body”. This theoretical framework serves as a basis for the instructional procedures. ○ The class consists of drills based on imperative sentences uttered by the teacher with the aim of creating a response from learners, who must follow theirinstructions.Thismethodisveryusefultointroducenewvocabularylike phrasal verbs, for example. Errors are not corrected atearlystages,butafter theelementarylevelisexceeded,theyceasetobeoverlooked.Thismethodis optimal to teach subjects like Physical Education or Arts and Crafts in English. The communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) CLTemergedfromtheneedofchangingfromthetraditionalGrammarTranslationMethodto a faster and more effective one. The rise of the European Union and the subsequent migrations increased the number of adults who needed to learn a language as quicklyas possible, for which Grammar Translation Method programmeswere most unsuitable. The main features of a communicative approach according to Nunan (1991) are the following: • An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language. • The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation. • The provision of opportunities for learners to focus,notonlyonlanguagebutalsoonthe learning process itself. • An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning. • An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom. ★ Communication over linguistic accuracy. The goal is for learners to effectively communicate in real-life situations, focusing on fluency rather than perfection. 7 Unit 2 - Themaindisadvantageofthismethodisthatproblemscanariseiftheteacherisnot from the same region as the learner, in which case the teacher will not be able to detect the possible influence of their student’s mother tongue. Example of a CLT lesson The objective is toteachthepasttenseoftheverbtobe.Theteacherstartstheclassasking theirstudentswhattheirfavoritehistoricalcharactersare,oraboutwell-knownpeople,events ordatesofalltimes.Oncethestudentshavesaidseveralnames,theteacherlooksthemupon the computer and reads parts of their biographies, for example their childhood. - Possible questions to elicit the practice of the past tense of verb to be: - Which of them was the first to be born? - Which of them were born in Europe? - Which of them were born in America? - Which of them was an orphan? - Which of them were of poor origin? - Which of them were poor at first but finally became rich? Thefollowingquestionswillnotonlyelicitthepracticeofthepasttenseoftheverbtobe,but they will also connect the students’ own personal experiences with the lesson content: • Were you in any of those countries? • Was any of your ancestors a historical figure? • Was any of them unknown for you? Finally,theteacherwillprovideanexplanationontheuseofthepasttenseoftheverbtobe andhowtheyhavebeenusingitinordertogivestudentstheopportunitytofocusnotonlyon language, but also on the learning process itself. ● PPL model ○ Overview: ● Focus: PPP is a traditional teaching model that follows a linear progression: Presentation of new language, practice of the language, and then production of the language. ● PPP initially emphasizes forms in presentation and practice, with an integration of form and meaning in the production phase. 8 Unit 2 ● Philosophy: Learners first receive explicit instruction, practice the new language in controlled exercises, and then apply it in more open-ended, communicative tasks. ● Stages: Presentation:Theteacherintroducesnewlanguageitems,explainingrulesand providing examples. Practice: Learners engage in controlled exercises, drills, or activities to reinforce the new language. ■ OptionA:Reinforceusageandfamiliaritywiththelanguageelements: - Drills, Controlled exercises - Guided activities controlled environment ■ Option B: Engage in structured activities to reinforce and internalize the language presented. Communicative tasks Role-plays Information-gap controlled environment Production: Students apply the language in more open-ended tasks, such as discussions or role-plays. - Example: ● Presentation: The teacher introduces a new set of vocabulary related to jobs, explaining meanings and providing examples. ● Practice: Students complete worksheets, matching job names with descriptions or filling in the blanks in sentences. ● Production: Inpairsorsmallgroups,studentsdiscusstheirdreamjobsandwhythey find them appealing, using the newly learned vocabulary. Pros and Cons: ● Pros:Providesclearstructure,allowsforcontrolledpractice,andensuresexposureto the target language. ● Cons: May lack real-world context, might not emphasize communication as much, and can be less engaging for learners. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): ● Overview: ● Focus: TBLT centers around the completion of communicative tasksastheprimary vehicle for language learning. ● TBLT primarily focuses on form 9
