Earth: Structure and Subsystems PDF

 Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The different characteristics of Earth are responsib...

 Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.  The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components. The table below shows the major components in the atmosphere and their relative concentrations.  The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is used by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to convert the energy from the sun to usable energy. The oxygen makes it livable for living organisms including humans for respiration and for our cells to function.  Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of the radiation is reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining 45% is absorbed by the earth’s surface.  The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage of roots.  In return, vegetation produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents soil and wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation makes our planet livable.  The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly three- quarters of the earth’s surface is the sea and the ocean. The ocean houses many species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms of water include river, streams, and lakes.  Other than being a water reservoir, these forms of water are all sources of fish and shellfish that we consume. They also serve as thermostat and heat reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve as ways for transportation.  The heat that drives the different systems necessary to support life on Earth come from two sources: a. Internal Heating of Earth b. External Heating from the Sun  Internal Heating of Earth – radiogenic heat from radioactive decay of materials in the core and mantle, and extruded via active tectonic activities. External Heating from the Sun – form of radiation which enters Earth. As sunlight strikes Earth, some of the heat is trapped by a layer of gases.  In the ocean, dark blue to violet represents warmer areas where there is little life due to lack of nutrients, and greens and reds represent cooler nutrient-rich areas. The nutrient-rich areas include coastal regions where cold water rises from the sea floor bringing nutrients along and areas at the mouths of rivers where the rivers have brought nutrients into the ocean from the land.  On land, green represents areas of abundant plant life, such as forests and grasslands, while tan and white represent areas where plant life is sparse or non-existent, such as the deserts in Africa and the Middle East and snow-cover and ice at the poles.  On land, green represents areas of abundant plant life, such as forests and grasslands, while tan and white represent areas where plant life is sparse or non-existent, such as the deserts in Africa and the Middle East and snow-cover and ice at the poles.  “We lose those battles as often as we succeed. The key, though, win or lose, is to never fail. And the only way to fail is not to fight. So fight until you can't fight anymore. Never let go. Never give up. Never run. Never surrender. Fight the good fight, you fight even when it seems inevitable you're about to go down swinging.” -Dr. Amelia Shepherd Earth: Structure and Subsystems John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN Earth: The Living Planet Earth has a unique structure consisting of different layers and interacting subsystem. Earth: The Living Planet Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Our planet is dynamic, and each part of the Earth are interconnected and continuously interact with one another. The interactivity parts that form a complex whole define a system. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Subsystem – the interacting parts in the Earth’s system. Lithosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems Lithosphere – refers to the solid parts of the Earth. It is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe the systems of the Earth. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Lithosphere is not a continuous layer. It is divided in to large number of plates that move in relation to one another. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Pangaea – a huge landmass were all continents are locked up into as proposed by Alfred Wegener. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems The plates drift sideways at the rate of 12 cm per year. This seem to be slow but imagine how much the plates have moved in 100 years, 1000 years or even 1000000 years. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Plate Tectonic Theory The lithosphere is divided into major plates and smaller plates resting upon the soft layer called asthenosphere. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems There are 15 tectonic plates. However, experts today count more than 50 plates. The Philippine plate which the Philippine rests on has been renamed to Philippine Sea Plate. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Boundary – the border between tectonic plates. a. Convergent b. Divergent c. Transform Earth: Structure and Subsystems a. Divergent b. Convergent c. Transform Earth: Structure and Subsystems Atmosphere – the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere. Greek roots atmos which means gas, and sphaira which means globe or ball. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems Layers of the Atmosphere a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere c. Mesosphere d. Thermosphere e. Exosphere Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems a. Troposphere – extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest layer where the weather forms. b. Stratosphere – found 14.5 km to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer. Earth: Structure and Subsystems c. Mesosphere – extends from 50 km to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the Earth from the impact of space debris. d. Thermosphere – found 85 km to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged particles that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The particles create the Auroras or Northern and Southern lights. Earth: Structure and Subsystems e. Exosphere – the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the Earth's surface. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Hydrosphere – composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice. It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater. It includes all bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part of the hydrosphere. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Earth: Structure and Subsystems Biosphere - comprised of all living things. It includes all microbes, plants, and animals. It extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also reaches the deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still survive. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles make life on Earth possible. Earth: Structure and Subsystems Nitrogen Cycle Earth: Structure and Subsystems Carbon Dioxide - Oxygen Cycle Earth: Structure and Subsystems Water Cycle  “As surgeons, we rely on cycles. Heartbeats. Cell regeneration. Circadian rhythms. We know something's wrong when the cycle is broken. Our duty is to fix it. To force the cogs back in line. But that break can also be useful, like a warning shot.“ -Dr. Meredith Grey Rocks and Minerals JohnAldrichG. Cortez,RN Rocks and Minerals Earth’s materials include rocks and minerals. They exhibit characteristics features and have economic value. Earth’s rock undergo transformation. Rocks and Minerals Mineral – a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite chemical composition. Mineralogy – the study of minerals and their properties. Rocks and Minerals There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals based on physical and chemical properties. Some minerals can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments while some can be assessed through their physical properties. Rocks and Minerals Rocks – consist of aggregates of minerals. Minerals – the building blocks of rocks. They are made up of one or a number of chemical elements with a definite / orderly chemical composition and crystal structure. Physical Properties of Minerals 1. Color Depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high symmetry. The reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice results in the color perceived by the observer. Physical Properties of Minerals 2. Streak the color of the mineral in its powdered form. Physical Properties of Minerals Mineral gems come in different colors and streak. Physical Properties of Minerals 3. Luster The relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces. Physical Properties of Minerals Minerals maybe opaque, translucent or transparent. Physical Properties of Minerals 4. Specific Gravity The ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with an equal volume. It can be determined by using a balance. Physical Properties of Minerals Mineral Specific Gravity Copper 8.9 Silver 10.5 Lead 11.3 Gold 19 Physical Properties of Minerals 5. Hardness The measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. Dependent on the chemical composition and the crystalline structure of a mineral. Physical Properties of Minerals Physical Properties of Minerals Scale Description Field Hardness 1 Can be rubbed off on a finger 2 Can be scratched with a fingernail Guide 3 Can be scratched with a coin 4 Can be scratched with difficulty with a knife 5 Can be scratched with a knife blade 6 Can be scratched with a piece of glass 7 Can be scratched with a piece of quartz 8 – 10 Mineral is too hard to be included in this scale Physical Properties of Minerals 6. Cleavage The tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces. It is described how a mineral breaks along weakness plain. The quantity of cleavage can be described in how clearly or easily the mineral breaks like perfect, good, distinct, poor or indistinct. Physical Properties of Minerals 6. Fracture the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into forms other than flat surfaces. 7. Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting, crushing, bending, or hitting. Physical Properties of Minerals 8. Crystal Habit The growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated. Over all shape of a mineral. Common shapes include needlelike (acicular), plantlike (dendritic), kidney – shaped (reniform), elongated in one direction (prismatic) and broad and flat (tabular). Physical Properties of Minerals Chemical Properties of Minerals 1. Solubility The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature. For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral. Chemical Properties of Minerals 2. Melting Point The temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 1. Quartz A chemical composition of SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks. Despite its hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Common Rock – Forming Minerals Pure quartz is clear and transparent. Colored varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 2. Feldspar Has a chemical composition of XAl(1−2)Si(3−2)O8, where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness of 6. Common Rock – Forming Minerals It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 3. Mica Any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common examples are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. Common Rock – Forming Minerals It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 4. Pyroxene Have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X is Ca or Mg and Y is either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white, light green, or light brown. Common Rock – Forming Minerals It is generally black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its two cleavages at around 90°. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 5. Amphibole Has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most common amphibole. Common Rock – Forming Minerals It has a glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin. Common Rock – Forming Minerals 6. Olivine A silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4, but calcium, manganese, and nickel can be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot. Common Rock – Forming Minerals It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a granular shape.  “I believe that even though you made this mistake, you will be okay. I believe we survive. I believe that believing we survive is what makes us survive.” -Dr. Izzie Stevens John Aldrich G. Rocks and Cortez, RN Minerals  The diversity of minerals on Earth are based on the similarities and differences of their chemistry.  Resources such as rocks and minerals are of great value to people. They provide materials and products that the present society demands. They are used as oscillators in electronic devices, provide taste to food or ingredients for plaster boards. Characteristics of Minerals Naturally – occurring – minerals exist naturally. Steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially, therefore are not minerals. Inorganic – minerals are limited to substances formed through inorganic processes and exclude materials derived from living which involved organic processes. Characteristics of Minerals Solid – all liquid and gases, and even those that are naturally formed are not considered minerals. Definite Chemical Composition – the chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula with the elements and compounds in specific ratio. Characteristics of Minerals Ordered Internal Structure – the atoms in minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive geometric patterns or crystal structure. Composition of Minerals Silicates – silicon – oxygen tetrahedrons. Oxides – metal cations bonded to oxygen anions. Sulfides – metal cation bonded to sulfide. Sulfates – they usually precipitate out of water near Earth’s surface. Composition of Minerals Halides – composed of halogen ion. Carbonates – characterized by the presence of carbonic ion. Native Metals – composed of single metal. Rocks Petrology – the branch of geology that studies rocks, and the conditions in which rocks form. Rocks – natural solid materials that make up the most of the Earth’s lithosphere. Rocks Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. Rock Cycle – a model that describes the formation, breakdown, and reformation of a rock as a result of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic processes. Rocks Process Product Melting Magma Crystallization Igneous Rock Uplift and Exposure Weathering and Erosion Sediments Transportation Deposition Sedimentary Rock Lithification Metamorphism Metamorphic Rock Rocks Rocks Geologically, rocks can be classified into three. 1. Igneous Rocks 2. Sedimentary Rocks 3. Metamorphic Rocks Igneous Rock Igneous Rock – formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava. Latin, Ignis – Fire. This make sense because these rocks are formed by volcanic activity. Igneous Rock Magma – a molten rock generated by partial melting of rocks in Earth’s mantle. Magma consists mainly of silicon and oxygen, lesser amounts of aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and iron. Formation of Igneous Rock Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Formation of Igneous Rock 1. Below the Surface, from Granite slow cooling magma – Diorite formation of crystals Syenite that are visible to the naked eye. These types of igneous rocks cool underneath the surface as plutons. Formation of Igneous Rock 2. On the surface, from Basalt rapidly cooling magma – Andesite very small crystals that Rhyolite may not be visible without the use of a magnifying lens. Igneous rocks like these are extruded during volcanic eruptions. Formation of Igneous Rock 3. On the surface, from Ignimbrite the consolidation of Tuff particle erupted by Volcanic explosive volcanic Breccia activity – a hybrid of igneous and sedimentary processes. Igneous Rock Types of Igneous Rock a. Extrusive Igneous Rock – Volcanic rock. Molten rocks solidify at the surface (lava). They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface. Igneous Rock Types of Igneous Rock b. Intrusive Igneous Rock – Plutonic rock. Igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They are coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth. Igneous Rock Igneous Rock Igneous Rock Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and percentage mineral composition. Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary Rock - Rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Lithification – the process by which the sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rock. Sedimentary Rock Types of Sedimentary Rock a. Clastic Sedimentary Rock - made by compaction and cementation of fragments and are identified by size of fragments. Compaction – as piles of sediments accumulate, the underlying materials are compacted by the weight of the overlying layers. Formation of Sedimentary Rock 1. From the concentration of Shale sediments that have been Sandstone deposited, buried and Conglomerate compacted for a long period of time – Clastic, differentiated based on size of sediments. Formation of Sedimentary Rock 2. From the precipitation of Limestone minerals from ions in Dolostone solution – rocks that are Rock Salt exposed to water and oxygen can undergo chemical changes that breaks down their chemical components. Formation of Sedimentary Rock 3. From the compaction and cementation of plant or animal remains – Bioclast. Coquina Organic Limestone Sedimentary Rock Types of Sedimentary Rock Cementation – Sediments are converted into sedimentary rock. b. Non Clastic Sedimentary Rock - form from chemical reactions, chiefly in the ocean. Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock Metamorphic Rock - Rocks which are formed by heat and pressure changing one type of rock into another type of rock. These rocks came from preexisting rocks, parent rocks that undergo changes. Metamorphic Rock Metamorphism – the change of minerals or geologic texture in pre-existing rocks, without the protolith melting into liquid magma. The change occurs primarily due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. Formation of Metamorphic Rock 1. Dominant altering factor Slate is pressure – the flat Schist elongated mineral Gneiss components of pre- existing rock react by aligning perpendicular to the axis of pressure. Formation of Metamorphic Rock 2. Dominant altering factor Marble is heat – direct contact Quartzite between an older rock material and an intruding body of magma. Metamorphic Rock Types of Metamorphic Rock a. Foliated Metamorphic Rock – have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure to high temperatures and pressures. b. Non – Foliated Metamorphic Rock – with blocky shapes and do not have banding. Metamorphic Rock  “Change. We don't like it. We fear it, but we can't stop it from coming. We either adapt to change or we get left behind. It hurts to grow, anybody who tells you it doesn't is lying, but here's the truth sometimes the more things change the more they stay the same. And sometimes, change is good. Sometimes change is everything.” -Dr. Meredith Grey Important Minerals in Society John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN Home and Personal Use Aside from salt, other minerals compose some of the items and equipment found in our houses. Feldspar is a component for ceramics, glassware, and pottery. It is also an ingredient in making soaps. Fluorite is also used in ceramics and pottery. It is commonly known as a component of toothpaste in the form of fluoride. Home and Personal Use Gold, silver, and platinum are made into pieces of jewelry and other important articles at home. Quartz is used for the production of glass and fiberglass usually used at home. Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing Numerous minerals are important to infrastructure and manufacturing. A very good example of this is copper. Copper serves as an important material in electronics and wiring because of its conductive properties. Silver is utilized in electronics for the same reason. Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing Silica is a mineral that contains silicon, a metalloid that has some properties of metals such as the ability to conduct electricity. Tungsten and molybdenum are used widely for the filament in incandescent bulbs because of their high melting points. Iron ores are used for stainless steel production. Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing Barium, chromite, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, and nickel serve as alloys in the production of other metals. Bauxite is an ore where aluminum is derived. It is important for the production of cement for construction. Copper and lead are also utilized widely in the construction field. Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing Quartz, in the form of sand, is also valuable in construction and manufacturing. Graphite, known in your pencil "lead”, can also be used in manufacturing. Economics Mining of minerals contribute to the gross domestic product (GDP) of a country. Gold is used as a reserve and serves as a backup for currencies. The amount of reserves of gold correlates to inflation. If the central bank of a country buys gold, the country’s currency is affected because of the fluctuations in the supply and demand of the currency. Precious Minerals and Other Uses Some minerals are used as gemstones. Rubies and sapphires contain aluminum oxide. Emeralds are from the mineral beryl. Diamond, a form of carbon, is considered as the most precious mineral. It is also the hardest mineral (10 on the Mohs Scale). Though commonly used for jewelry, some uncut diamonds are placed as additive for metal cutters because of its hardness. Precious Minerals and Other Uses Quartz is also considered as a semi- precious mineral. In some cases, minerals are used in the medical field. Examples of these minerals are barium that is a helpful additive to medicine in x-rays of the digestive system, and iron which is used to treat anemia.  “Sometimes when I'm trying to understand a person's motives, I play a little game. I assume the worst.“ -Sansa Stark Ores and Minerals John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN  Minerals are resources that must be sustained for present and future generations. Ore Minerals: How They Are Found and Mined A mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic substance that has a definite chemical composition. In this case, some important elements including metals can be economically extracted from specialized rocks called ore deposits. Methods of Mining Surface mining is used to extract ore minerals near the surface of the earth. The soil and rocks that covered the ores are removed through blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. Some examples of surface mining are open-pit mining, quarrying, and strip mining. Methods of Mining Underground mining is used to extract the rocks, minerals, and other precious stones that can be found beneath the earth’s surface. In underground mining, miners need to create a tunnel so they can reach the ore minerals. This kind of mining is more expensive and dangerous as compared to surface mining because miners need to use explosive devices to remove the minerals from the rocks that cover them. Mineral Processing Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals include sampling and analysis, comminution, concentration, and dewatering. Mineral Processing Sampling is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material. One or more samples are needed. Mineral Processing Analysis is important to evaluate the valuable components in an ore. This includes chemical, mineralogical, and particle size analysis. a. Chemical analysis uses electric discharge which excites the elements in the sample to emit a certain spectra which will reveal the identity of the elements as well as its concentration. Mineral Processing b. Mineralogical analysis uses heavy liquid-testing that aims to separate the less dense, same density, and denser materials. Coarsely grounded minerals are classified according to particle size through sieving. Mineral Processing c. Comminution is the process where the valuable components of the ore are separated through crushing and grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a powder form. Mineral Processing d. Concentration involves the separation of the valuable minerals from the raw materials. Optical separation - a process used in the concentration of minerals with distinct contrasting colors (black and white) seen with the naked eye. Mineral Processing Gravity separation - process that uses the density of minerals as the concentrating agent and performs a sink and float separation of water and the grounded minerals. Flotation separation - the most widely used method that makes use of the mineral’s wettability to water or chemicals. Mineral Processing Magnetic separation - a process that involves different degrees of attraction of minerals to magnets. Electrostatic separation - a process that separate the mineral particles based on their electric charges. Mineral Processing e. Dewatering uses the concentrates to convert it to usable minerals. This involves filtration and sedimentation of the suspension, and drying of the solid material harvested from this suspension.  "Your words will disappear. Your house will disappear. Your name will disappear. All memory of you will disappear.“ -Sansa Stark  Ore bodies are unevenly distributed throughout the Earth’s crust. This is the main reason why a country will never be self – enough in terms of natural resources and supplies. Potential ore bodies are located by recognizing that a geologic process or combination of processes can produce a localized enrichment of one or more minerals and that these processes only happen in particular types of environment.  Hydrothermal Fluid Circulation – the most common type of ore mineral deposition process. Metamorphic Processes – the alteration and recrystallization of minerals and aids the formation and localization of economically – important minerals. Magmatic Processes – create ore minerals which are concentrated due to their premature recrystallization or separation from magma.  Kimberlite Magma – originates deep within the mantle and is the source of diamonds, which only crystallize at depths greater than 150km. Chemical Sedimentary Process – form evaporate deposits from the precipitation of salt water minerals. Action of Currents – flowing surface water tends to take sediments along. If the wave action and strength is constant, it causes a selective sifting effect that removes the sediments and leaves behind those that are heavier in placer deposits.  Chemical Weathering – all rocks are exposed to oxygen and water, that is, chemical changes in their mineral components that result in their alteration into other minerals and into the formation of residual ore deposits.  Mining – a set of processes in which useful resources are withdrawn from a stock of any nonrenewable resource. Mining ores is an intensive and sophisticated process that varies depending on the mineral and on whether they are excavated, stripped or brought via tunnels and shafts.  Looking for the ore body, a deposit that can yield a large amount of the required ore mineral. Prospecting or Exploration  Extracting a part of the ore to determine the resulting ore, its quality and the amount of the ore mineral (grade). Drilling  Determines the ore’s size, shape and grade distribution throughout the deposit to apply appropriate mining methods. Modelling  Considering on the social and environmental aspects and finding ways of mitigating any consequence of the mining operation, with the purpose of bringing the area back as close to its original state as Identifying and Assessing the possible. Potential Impacts  Creating the appropriate mine and operational design and proceeding with the construction once all the necessary permits Designing and Constructing are acquired. the Mine  Separation of high – grade ores from the rest of the deposit. Ore Extraction  Crushing and concentration of ores, waste materials are released. Milling  Closure of the depleted mine. The mine site is cleaned up and reclaimed or rehabilitated for other purposes. Mine Site Decommissioning  The minerals are contained in ores. After processing, only the mineral is used, and the remaining of the ore is disposed as waste. These wastes, if not handled and managed properly, can cause serious environmental problems. Mining generates a lot of wastes. For example, a mine obtains one kilo of copper. In the process of extracting one kilo, 99 kilos of wastes are removed. Simply put, ore will be one percent (1%) useful mineral and 99% wastes.  Energy Source Energy Production Usage Environmental Impact Oil, Petroleum Non Renewable 38% of world’s Refining and consumption in 2000 consuming produce air, Easily transported water and solid waste pollutants. Large portion in transportation industry Natural Gas Non Renewable 20% of world’s Produces fewer consumption in 2000 pollutants than oil and Flexible for use in coal and less CO2 industries, transportation, power generation  Energy Source Energy Production Usage Environmental Impact Coal Non Renewable Primary resource for Produces CO2 and electricity other air, water and solid pollutants Biomass: Wood and Renewable Low energy potential Burning emits CO2 organic waste relative to other and other pollutants including societal resources In terms of timber, it is Possible toxic waste easily harvested and byproducts from abundant in certain societal waste areas; But it takes a Loss of habitat when long time to grow a trees are harvested, tree unless sustainable tree farms  Energy Source Energy Production Usage Environmental Impact Hydro – electric Renewable Low economic cost Destruction of though high start farmlands, Clean resource up cost dislocation of with high people, loss of efficiency habitat, alteration Influenced by of stream flows climate and geography  Energy Source Energy Production Usage Environmental Impact Solar Power Renewable Technology is already Large land use (Photo – Voltaic) in use for remote applications and non- centralized uses where it is economically competitive with alternatives High economic cost particularly in terms of start Unlimited resource set up that is clean, efficient, safe and renewable Dependent on climate and geographical location Need a storage system for the energy to ensure reliability Not advanced enough for global use  Heavy metal wastes can seep through soil making it poisonous for plants to grow. Water sources can be contaminated by the acid used in the mining process. Tailings, a by-product of milling ores, can travel from the dump ponds into the water source of nearby communities. In the Philippines, some of these wastes damaged mangroves, reefs, and impaired agriculture.  It is then crucial that waste products be controlled to prevent them from making a more pronounced impact in our environment. There are ways to lessen the wastes and effects on the environment. 1. Recent improvements in technology enable mining companies to extract more minerals from the ores with fewer wastes in production. 2. The mining companies must be able to plan out their sites from exploration to rehabilitation. 3. The mining company must also ensure that they are able to restore the community that was displaced because of their activities. 4. Tailings from mines can be zoned in and surrounded by lands so that plants can avoid erosion of the ponds thus minimizing the possibility of seepage of the tailings. 5. Mine structures should be designed at par or even surpassing current rules and regulations set by the government and international standards. 6. Other mining practices include reforestation, slope stabilization, maintenance for dump facilities, managing and monitoring air and water quality, erosion control, and water conservation.  Philippine Mining Act of 1995 or RA 7942 – this law aims primarily to establish rules and regulations of mining practices in the country and to attract foreign investors to explore the potential of minerals in the country. At the same time, the law also intends to balance the mining industry, the culture, and the protection of the environment.  Executive Order (EO) 79, Series of 2012 – aimed to strengthen the provisions of the Philippine Mining Act of 1995. This EO imposed stricter rules on the environmental protection and waste management of different mining companies. 1. Job Creation. Mining process results in the creation of job opportunities to the local people and attracts other professionals in the market. 2. Boost Business Activities. Mining results in the rise of business activities and the rise of per capita income. This results in a higher human development index due to increased life expectancy and per capita income. 3. Enormous Earning. Mining for exportation purposes results in high enormous earnings to people working in the mines and boost the financial sector. 4. Extract Essential Sources of Energy. Mining results in the extraction of raw materials like oil, coal, gas, iron ores, and minerals providing efficient use of energy. 5. Development of Social Amenities. Mining in an area facilitates the development of social services like schools, healthcare, water for the employees working in the area and their families. 6. Development of Infrastructure. It leads to the development of the means of transport and communication in the area. The extracted raw materials need to be transported for further processing leading to improved means of transport. 7. Steer Technological Development. Advanced mining tools are used to safely create underground subway tunnels and pipes. Earth-moving technologies and environmental control systems are also needed to manage water flow, temperature, and airflow in mining areas. 8. Provides Essential Resources. Mining provides us with essential goods and services for use in our everyday life like the cookware and electronic components. 9. Spur Economic Growth. Selling of gold, coal, other mined materials, and job opportunities boost the economic growth of the country. It leads to the generation of income to the local government which directly contributes to the economic growth. 10. Environmental Stewardship. Advanced technological tools are being used in the mining sector to safeguard environmental impacts. It also promotes environmental awareness through rehabilitation programs in the mining areas. 1. Water Pollution. Mining results in contamination of the soil and groundwater from the chemicals in the mining zones. Contaminated groundwater can flow to rivers or lakes contributing to water pollution. 2. Leads to Deforestation. Mining in a certain area leads to deforestation as trees are cleared to pave way for the mining activity. The clearing of trees or forests contributes to climate change. 3. Cause Landslides. Improper and illegal mining in an area can result in some natural calamities like landslides and floods which can cause death to animals and people. 4. Affects Aquatic Life. Contaminated water from mining zones affects aquatic organisms (both micro and macro organism). It also affects the growth and health of terrestrial organisms like animals and vegetation. 5. Acid Rock Drainage. Sub-surface mining require water to be pumped out of the mine to avoid any flooding. If the water is not pumped out, it results in the creation of acid rock drainage issue. 6. Destruction of the Ecosystem. Clearance of the mining area and destruction of large portions of the forests lead to soil erosion in the area. 7. Loss of Biodiversity. Any illegal mining can affect the current biodiversity of the area. It affects animal and plant species in a particular habitat. 8. Danger to People. The mine are very dangerous and they weaken the structure above or around the area. Mine shaft can collapse causing death to people underground. 9. Harmful to Human Health. The miners can suffer from some skin diseases, lungs, and respiratory problems which are caused by the chemicals released in the air and water from the mining zones. 10. Heavy Metal Contamination. Water from the mines may contain metals like lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals which can contaminate the groundwater.  "What's the matter is that you keep holding me like this delicate flower that's going to break every time you look at me. That is what is the matter.“ -Dr. April Kepner Energy Resources John Aldrich G. Cortez  Energy Resources – Energy Resources – Energy Resources – Fossil Fuel Fossil Fuel Fossil Fuel Types of Formation of Coal  Peat Types of Formation of Coal  Lignite Types of Formation of Coal  Bituminous Types of Formation of Coal  Anthracite Crude Oil Formation Crude Oil Formation Crude Oil Formation Crude Oil Formation Crude Oil Formation Crude Oil Formation Natural Gas Formation Natural Gas Formation Natural Gas Formation ’ Problems with Fossil Fuels Problems with Fossil Fuels Problems with Fossil Fuels “  Earth’s internal heat can be tapped to produce energy for human consumption.  Geothermal energy is an alternative source for energy production in the world. It is a large and reliable source of energy, second only to fossil fuels. How is geothermal energy being used to generate energy?  Geothermal energy - one of the natural resources utilized to generate power. This form of energy usually thrives in volcanic areas such as the Pacific Ring of Fire and Iceland. It comes from the heat that is produced inside the Earth.  Temperature profile of the inner Earth  For a location to have a potential of producing geothermal energy, molten rocks from volcanoes must be able to heat groundwater or at least generate heat that can be harvested at the surface. The energy may be used in two major ways: a. generation of electricity b. heating of structures in colder regions  Geothermal power plants utilize the steam or heat from the Earth to generate electricity. High temperatures vaporize water and turn it to steam. Steam is extracted because it has the energy to turn turbines in power plants to generate electricity. 1. Groundwater reaches the areas near volcanoes. The molten rocks around these volcanoes heat the groundwater. 2. People reach the heated groundwater by drilling wells through the ground. Steam may be directly extracted from the well. If only heated water is available, the pressure is decreased to convert water into steam. 3. The steam and water harvested from these wells are separated. The water is released back to the reservoirs for the regeneration of steam. 4. The steam is sent to power plants. In these plants, the steam spins the turbines that generate electricity. 5. The steam is condensed into water and returned to reservoirs.  Colder regions can take advantage of geothermal resources for heating purposes. 1. Houses and buildings in these locations install underground pipes that reach to the geothermal resource. 2. During cold weather, water in these pipes is heated by the geothermal resource underground. 3. The heated water reaches the surface, and through a radiator, heat is distributed to the home or building. 4. During hot weather, the reverse happens. The radiator collects the heat and sends cooled water to the home or building.  a. Dry Steam Power Plants Dry steam power plants harness energy directly from the steam ejected by the geothermal resource. Steam from underground goes through pipes and are directed to turbines. b. Flash Steam Power Plants Use heated water (more than 180 degrees) from the resource. When the water reaches the surface, a separator segregates steam from water. The steam is directed to the turbines.  c. Binary power plants Use both heated water and a solution with a low boiling point. The heated water causes the solution to turn into steam. The steam of the solution is used to generate power from the turbines.  Advantages of Geothermal Energy 1. Geothermal energy is clean and renewable. 2. Few chemical pollutants are released into the atmosphere. Pollutants are only expelled if the construction of geothermal power plants is incorrect. 3. Only a few wastes are generated by geothermal energy extraction. One of these wastes is water which is actually reverted back to the geothermal source to be reused. 4. Energy from geothermal sources is low in cost and maintenance. Fossil fuel plants cost much higher than geothermal plants. 5. Geothermal plants do not need a large space to be developed.  Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy 1. Geothermal energy emits water vapor into the atmosphere. Large amounts of water vapor can cause the greenhouse effect. 2. Geothermal energy is affected by temperature drops in a location, in this case, it becomes an unreliable source of energy. If too much water is pumped to the geothermal source, the molten rocks may be cooled off. 3. Some harmful gases may be emitted by geothermal resources if the source is not managed. Remember that these resources are near volcanoes so there is a high tendency of ejecting volcanic gases such as sulfur dioxide. 4. Geothermal energy can only be used by the location surrounding a source. It cannot be transported for long distances.  Geothermal Energy in the Philippines The Philippines is along the Pacific Ring of Fire where most active volcanoes are found. This feature is an advantage in the Philippines for geothermal energy is abundant in the country because of its location. The country is the second highest producer of geothermal energy in the world, next to the United States of America.  Geothermal energy already supplies 27% of the country’s electricity. The Philippines still has reserves that can generate around 2000 megawatts more electricity. Aside from providing part of the electrical power, geothermal energy in the Philippines also helps the country save millions of dollars from purchasing fossil fuels from other countries.  The year 2018 closes with a total installed geothermal power generation capacity of 14,600 MW and a positive outlook in key countries of the geothermal world.  “The only time I don't feel like a ghost is when you look at me, because when you look at me, you see me. You see me. This is me.” -Dr. Owen Hunt Hydroelectric Energy John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN  Due to the problems and limitations surrounding the use of fossil fuels, exploration of renewable energy has heightened in the recent years. One of these sources of energy comes from the moving water. Water and gravity generate energy. How is the power of raging waters converted into electricity? Hydroelectric Energy Hydroelectric energy - produced by the force of moving and flowing water. It is harnessed from water resources that have tendencies to flow or to fall from a certain height. This energy depends on the water cycle for replenishing resources and the kinetic energy from the flow or fall of water. Hydroelectric energy is widely used as an alternative source of energy worldwide. Hydroelectric Energy Hydroelectric energy is not a newly-discovered source of energy. Ancient Romans have used it to turn turbines that helped them grind grains. In the 1800s, flowing water provided the same function to water mills. Water mills that functioned as grain and lumber cutters were powered by moderately flowing water. Hydroelectric Energy Harnessing Hydroelectric Energy Ideal sources of hydroelectric energy are large, fast- flowing rivers, and waterfalls. The two main factors considered in selecting a good source of hydroelectric energy are: a. flow of water (rate and volume) b. height difference between the water source and outflow. Hydroelectric Energy 1. Reservoirs, such as dams, are built on rivers that have a high potential energy (flow and height). Reservoirs increase water height and enable the water to be controlled. 2. The water from the reservoirs is channeled to the turbines in hydroelectric plants. The release of water is controlled through the intake or inlet gates. When the inlet gates are opened, the water flows through it into the penstock until it reaches the turbines. The penstock is a large shaft that connects the reservoir and the power generating units (turbines and generators). Hydroelectric Energy 3. The energy from the flowing water turns the turbines that are connected to electric generators. 4. The turbines produce energy that spins electromagnets on the generators. The movement of the electromagnets produces current. Hydroelectric Energy 5. The current is transferred to transformers through the long distance power lines or transmission cables that store or distribute electricity. 6. Water flows out of the turbines to rivers or to other nearby water resources.  Hydroelectric dams are among the greenest and most affordable electricity sources in the world—and by far the most widely used renewable energy sources—but they also take a heavy environmental toll in the form of compromised landscapes, ecosystems Hydroelectric Dam and fisheries. Hydroelectric Energy Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants Different hydroelectric power plants can be built depending on the water resource. Some hydroelectric plants are designed for reservoirs while others can be built over rivers without the need for reservoir constructions.  a. The type of hydroelectric power plant that needs a reservoir for operation. Water released from the dam flows through the turbines. Impoundment  One advantage of this design is that water can be controlled depending on electricity or water needs. Impoundment  b. The run-of-river, diverts some portions of a river through a small pipe or the penstock. A weir or a small pond is required to keep the penstock submerged. The channeled water goes straight to the powerhouse and turns the turbines to Diversion generate electricity.  The used water then returns to the river through the tailrace – a path where the water is pumped out of the hydroelectric power plant. This method can be used if the water resource has a low Diversion height.  c. Like a battery that stores electricity. Two reservoirs are built – top and bottom. It stores energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. When electricity is needed, the water from the upper reservoir is released to the lower reservoir to generate Pumped Storage electricity.  When electric demand is low, the water in the lower reservoir is pumped back to the upper reservoir for reuse. Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Energy Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy 1. Hydroelectric energy relies on water. 2. Hydroelectric energy is renewable. 3. Hydroelectric power plants are safe. 4. Hydroelectric power is not limited to the generation of electricity. 5. Hydroelectric energy provides affordable power, especially to rural areas. Hydroelectric Energy Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy 1. Reservoirs can become obstacles to moving fishes. 2. Dams cause floods to rivers. 3. Turbines and generators can increase the temperature of the water. 4. People living near water resources are forced to migrate because of the change in the landscape. Hydroelectric Energy 5. Hydroelectricity may be cheap for the consumers but it requires a high investment for the structures. 6. Methane emissions can occur in hydroelectric power plants. 7. Some hydroelectric power plants become unusable after some time if silt builds up on the reservoirs. Hydroelectric Energy Hydroelectric energy accounts for around 16% of the world’s electricity and 10% of the Philippines'. Many countries still have to tap their potential in producing hydroelectric energy. If managed properly, hydroelectric energy can be a more sustainable source of electricity in the long run.  “And if you can't do it, if you aren't willing to keep looking for light in the darkest of places without stopping, even when it seems impossible, you will never succeed.” -Dr. Amelia Shepherd  Ways to Address the Different Environmental Concerns Related to the Use of Fossil Fuels, Geothermal Energy, and Hydroelectric Energy John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN Lesson Recap Fossil fuels are non – renewable sources of energy. Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are types of fossil fuels which can be used in producing electricity. Geothermal and hydroelectric energy are renewable sources of energy. Lesson Recap Geothermal energy is a type of energy coming from the heat of the Earth. Hydroelectric energy is the energy produced from the movement of water. Environmental Concerns Energy from fossil fuels, geothermal, and hydroelectric power plants enables people to operate machines. From big factories to small households, these energy sources help us in accomplishing tasks that make our lives easier. However, we must be aware that the use of these sources of energy comes with consequences that must be addressed. Environmental Concerns The use of fossil fuels poses a great impact in our environment including enhanced greenhouse effect, air pollution, acid rain, and changes in the natural features of the land. Reducing the energy consumption produced by using fossil fuels is one way to address these concerns. Environmental Concerns Energy conservation – decreasing one’s consumption of energy which helps lessen the need for burning fossil fuels. You can decrease your energy consumption by turning off appliances when not in use and limiting the use of appliances. Environmental Concerns Energy efficiency – the use of less energy but still providing the same output desired. Energy efficient cars and aircrafts are also designed and produced by manufacturers wherein modifications on its design, from its physical appearance to its engine, require less energy but provide the same service. Environmental Concerns Renewable sources of energy Clean sources of energy Help lessen the effects of fossil fuel use. Unlike fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric power plants emit less air pollutants. However, the construction of these power plants changes the natural features of the land and may affect the living organisms that live within that area.  “The point is it doesn’t matter what the rest of us think. At the end of the day all that matters is what you think” -Dr. Alex Karev   ’ ’     % ’   96.5 %  –  (2.5%) ’ 68.7%  30.1% —  – – 50 000 2  24 3 %    – 3 %  – % ’  –  – – –  4 –     – –   –  – “ ’ ’ ’ ” How Different Activities Affect the John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN Quality and Availability of Water  Water resources provide humans their daily water needs. Even with numerous water resources, there is still an unfortunate chance that some countries will have inadequate access to water in the future. Human activities are contributing to the water problems of the world. What human activities affect the water resources? How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Water resources around the world are threatened because of human activities. In the Philippines, many rivers and other water resources have been declared as biologically dead. Biologically dead means the water resources have inadequate oxygen. In effect, they cannot sustain life. Pasig River was declared biologically dead in the 1990s. How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water The human activities affecting water resources 1. Population growth, particularly in water – short regions 2. Movement of large number of people from the country side to towns and cities 3. Demands for greater food security and higher living standards How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water The human activities affecting water resources 4. Increased competition between different uses of water resources 5. Pollution from factories, cities and farmlands How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Agricultural Activities Agriculture is a major consumer of water resources, but some agricultural activities have adverse effects on these resources. Irrigation diverts water from these sources to fields causing the water resources to shrink.  A devastating effect on agriculture was observed in the Aral Sea of Central Asia. The lake has been shrinking since 1960 due to the construction of poorly-planned irrigation canals from Aral Sea its tributary rivers. How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Aquaculture Aquacultures - the cultivation of aquatic animals and plants for food. Wastes from fish pens remain in the water while fishes from overpopulated pens use up more oxygen causing a decrease in water quality. How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Groundwater Extraction Excessive extraction of groundwater causes the water table to sink. As the water table descends, sediments can contaminate the water. Saltwater can intrude from nearby oceans. Also, the groundwater cannot supply water to other water resources. How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water The consequence of excessive groundwater withdrawal include reduced spring yields, diminished river flow, poorer water quality, damage to natural habitats and gradual sinking of land.  National Institute of Geological Sciences and Marine Science Institute in University of the Philippines have shown that the ground subsidence in Rosario, Cavite and CAMANAVA area in Metro Manila are related to the extraction of Ground Subsidence groundwater. How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Urbanization and Landscape Change Cities with small land areas but big demands resort to land reclamation — filling up bodies of water with sand, gravel, and other materials to add to the land area. This causes water to be less accessible.  Landscaping also affects the water quality and availability. Landscaping  minimizes the capability of the ground to sustain water because of the lack of soil and roots of plants that hold water. Deforestation How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Pollution Pollution has been a major problem for many years. Wastes from industries, such as pesticides, pollute the water systems. Mining wastes, such as radioactive materials, can leak into water sources if the disposal system of the site is poor.  Oil spills from boats greatly affect marine life and water quality in the oceans. Oil Spill How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water Effects of Individual Activities It may seem harmless to throw liquid wastes such as used cooking oil, strong detergents, and motor oil down the drains. But these wastes actually cause more harm because the drainage leads to water resources. Sewage of some homes goes directly into the rivers and lakes.  Pasig River, once a center of trade and transportation, became the disposal site from the communities connected to it. Home Sewage Ways of Conserving Water Resources Water resources supply the daily needs of humans. That is why it is imperative to protect and conserve these resources not just for our present need but also for securing water availability in the future. Ways of Conserving Water Resources Conservation of water – the meaningful and planned manner of water usage. The word conservation comes from the Latin words con meaning together and servare meaning to guard or to keep. Ways of Conserving Water Resources Importance of Conserving Water The two general factors that drive us to conserve water are: a. the increase in demand b. waste production The increase in the population creates more demand for water not only for domestic use but also for agricultural and industrial purposes. The greater demand causes a decrease in the water supply that is used to sustain the growing population. Ways of Conserving Water Resources The increase in waste production may lead to water pollution that causes a decline in water quality and availability. Simply put, conserving water is important because there is more demand for water that should be sustained, and less available water due to the increase in waste production. Ways of Conserving Water Resources In Agriculture The use of flooding as a common irrigation practice must be avoided and replaced with drip or sprinkler irrigation system.  The drip irrigation system refers to the direct application of water onto the root zone through outlets or nozzles. Drip Irrigation System  The sprinkler irrigation system refers to the application of water above the crops in the form of spray like rain. Sprinkler Irrigation System Ways of Conserving Water Resources In Household The efficient use and reuse of water contribute to water conservation. About 20% of the water in households is used as drinking water, and the remaining 80% is used for washing and flushing. Ways of Conserving Water Resources In Household Instead of making the water flow continuously in the faucet, use proper containers when washing clothes, doing the dishes, and brushing your teeth. Laundry water can be reused to flush toilets. Recycling of water sewage is one way of conserving that 80% water usage. Ways of Conserving Water Resources In Industries Industrial waste water requires treatment procedures to remove toxic substances and impurities. Recycling and reuse of water will reduce the demand for a new water supply in the industrial waste water. Ways of Protecting Water Resources Protection of water resources makes water more sustainable for future use by protecting them from any form of wastes and pollution. It involves all of its beneficiaries. Like water conservation, sectors in agriculture, households, and industries also have responsibilities in protecting these resources. Ways of Protecting Water Resources In Household Dispose chemicals properly. Do not throw them in the drains for these cause major pollutions in the water resources. Households near waterways should not throw their solid wastes in the water sources. Drainages must be kept clean. Ways of Protecting Water Resources In Agriculture Wastes from animals in farms can be converted to compost or processed to produce natural gas. Irrigation canals must be planned well to avoid pollution and salinization from the fields. Aquaculture farmers must periodically clean their farms so that wastes will not reach other water resources. Ways of Protecting Water Resources In Industries Materials from construction sites must be kept away from drainages. Sand, cement, and paint may be washed away to these drainages. Mining companies must check their wastes disposal systems (e.g. tailings pond) to ensure that leak from accidents will not lead to water resources. Oil spills in the oceans must be acted upon immediately to avoid destruction of the ecosystem and to prevent further decline of water quality. Ways of Protecting Water Resources 1. Presidential Decree (PD) No. 424 of 1974 Created the National Water Resources Council (NWRC) to coordinate and integrate water resources development. 2. PD No. 1067 (1976) Instituted the Water Code which consolidated the laws governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of the water resources subject to regulation by NWRC. Ways of Protecting Water Resources 3. Executive Order (EO) No. 222 1995 Established the Presidential Committee on Water Conservation and Demand Management which was tasked to prepare nationwide Water Conservation Plan. Ways of Protecting Water Resources 4. Republic Act (RA) No. 8041 National Water Crisis Act of 1995 Addressed the country’s water problem through integrated water management program. 5. Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 Provided a comprehensive water quality management.  “Just because people do horrible things, it doesn't always mean they're horrible people.” -DR. Izzy Stevens Soil and Man John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN  The pedosphere is the living skin of Earth, which is the sum total of all the organisms, soils, water and air. The Pedosphere Soil is an essential component of Earth that has enable life to exist on the planet and continues to support it. Pedosphere – the foundation of terrestrial life on this planet. The living skin of Earth which is a result of the dynamic interaction among the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere and hydrosphere. The Pedosphere Components of Soil Soil is made from portions of the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It is generally composed of 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt and clay), 25% air, 25% water and 5% organic matter (humus, roots, dead and decaying organisms) Components of Soil Soil Formation 1. Parent Material – the parent or source material is important in soil formation because its chemistry and type will determinate the soil that will be formed. 2. Climate – temperature, rainfall and moisture affect the pattern and intensity of soil forming processes such as weathering, leaching, transportation and distribution. Soil Formation 3. Topography – the gradient of slope affects water flow and erosion. 4. Biological Factors – Organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and humans affect soil formation. 5. Time – the formation of soil is a long and continuous process which may take hundreds to thousands of years depending on the climate and environment. Soil Texture Soil Texture – the relative proportion of the particle sizes in soil (sand, silt, clay) Soil is naturally composed of a mixture of these particles and the proportion of which affects other soil properties such as porosity and water retention.  Soil Texture The smallest of these particles is clay, followed by silt and sand of varying sizes. Particles larger than coarse – grained sand are called gravel and rock if they are > 75.00 mm. Soil Profile Soil Profile – the sequence of soil horizons from the surface down to the underlying bedrock. It may vary depending on climate, topography, rock type or parent materials, biological activity and time. Soil scientist use the capital letters O, A, B, C and E to identify soil horizons. Soil Profile Surface Horizon (A) – composed of mineral matter mixed with some dark organic humus. Subsoil(B) – accumulated clay and other nutrients from the layers above it. Substratum (C) – composed of partially altered parent material. Soil Profile Organic Horizons (O) – composed of loose or partly decayed organic matter. Eluviated Horizon (e) – characterized by a significant loss of minerals and leaching. Bedrock Horizon (R) – not a soil, regolith. Soil Orders Soil scientists also developed a soil classification system to identify, understand and manage soil. The most general level of classification is the soil order consisting of 12 types. Soil Orders 1. Gelisols – frozen soils 2. Histosols – high organic and wet 3. Spodosols – sandy and acidic soil 4. Andisols – composed of volcanic ash 5. Oxisols – very weathered 6. Vertisols – clay like soil that shrink and swell Soil Orders 7. Aridisols – very dry soil in arid regions 8. Ultisols – weathered soil 9. Mollisols – deep and fertile soil 10. Alfisols – moderately weathered productive soil 11. Inceptisols – slightly developed, young soils 12. Entisols – newly formed soil found in steep rocky lands Soil and Soil Quality Soil provides services that are essential for the survival of humans and other organisms. It is a main component of land resources, agriculture and ecological sustainability. It also provides food and foundation for shelter. Soil and Soil Quality 1. Arable land for agriculture – Arabilis, able to be plowed. Plowable lands which could be used to grow crops. 2. Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants – soil plays important part in water cycle. Soil and Soil Quality 3. Nutrient cycling – carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other essential nutrients are stored, transformed and cycled in the soil. 4. Foundation and support – soil structure provides a base for plant roots. Soil and Soil Quality 5. Mineral Deposits – soils are mined for their mineral content whether it be iron, nickel, or aluminum. These soils are called laterites. Human Activities That Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil Human activities affect the quality and quantity of soil. Some activities cause its quality to diminish while some affect the amount of soil available. Other activities can even affect both the quality and quantity of soil.  causes the soil to lose nutrients fast. After some time, the soil may not be able to sustain plant life anymore because of nutrient loss. Agriculture: Excessive Farming  used in farming may harm the soil because chemicals in them can kill the microorganisms that help the soil be fertile. Fertilizers and Pesticides  could cause soil salinization if the saltwater intruded the irrigation canals. Salinized soil cannot support most plant life because of its toxicity to plants. Irrigation  renders the soil more susceptible to erosion. Crops provide less anchorage than trees which could lead to soil erosion. Deforestation  could cause the loss of plant cover making the soil susceptible to erosion. Overgrazing  connected to construction, land development, and industries affect the soil negatively. Sometimes, the land needs to be leveled to accommodate buildings, and this causes the topsoil to Construction, Development and be stripped off. Mining: Infrastructure  The construction processes also affect the soil due to the materials that render the soil infertile. Construction, Development and Mining: Infrastructure  has a great impact on soil because some development includes the reclassification of land. This causes the arable land to be converted to industrial land. These events could make the soil less productive for agriculture. Land Development  also cause the destruction of the soil. Mining Activities  strip mining cause the soil to be exposed to weathering and erosion agents. Quarrying  used in mining can also cause soil sterilization. Chemicals  Oil disposed on soil by industries can affect plant growth. Oil Disposal Human Activities That Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil Waste Disposal Industries, mining, and households produce wastes daily. Waste disposal affects the quality of the soil. Though mining wastes are supposedly contained, improperly planned disposal sites can lead to contamination and acidification of the soil.  natural or excavated holes intended for garbage disposal. Decomposition of wastes and the spillage of the chemicals from landfills can cause soil sterilization. Landfills  kills potential pathogenic microorganisms as well as the beneficial ones. Soil Sterilization Human Activities That Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil Consequently, this process has a negative impact on the biological equilibrium that thrives within the soil which in the long run, would degrade soil fertility. Improperly disposed wastes by households can lead to soil poisoning due to harmful contents present in the waste materials. These wastes also prevent the growth of plants on the soil. Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations The soil is one of the natural resources that provide humans with multiple benefits. However, its quantity and quality are declining due to some human activities. How can soil be conserved and protected from degradation?  a farming method where different crops are planted in the same soil in different seasons. For example, a farm that is planted with root crops will be planted with another type of crop in the next season. This method allows the soil to regain nutrients loss from a nutrient demanding crop. Crop Rotation  plowing and planting across the slope of an inclined soil resource. Instead of planting parallel to the slope, contour farming involves tilling the land perpendicular to the slope to prevent tillage erosion. Tillage erosion is the movement of the soil caused by cultivating a plot of land. Contour Farming  cover the soil with either plant (crop protection) or hay/straws (mulching). The plants and the mulch prevent soil from going into the passing water. Crop Protection and Mulching  alternates the species of plants farmed in an area. Alternating crops prevent massive soil erosion. Strip Farming  also a farming technique that breaks hillside slopes into smaller parts. The hillside is contoured to resemble stairs. The wide landing of each step in the soil resource serves as the field for farmers. Terracing  usually established in irrigation canals. The grasses on the waterways prevent soil erosion when irrigation water is distributed to the fields. Grassed Waterway Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations Soil Protection Methods Cover cropping involves the planting of small plants in barren or unplanted fields. The cover of the fields protects the soil from possible erosion. Proper waste disposal helps in soil protection because unnecessary wastes are prevented from having contact with soil. Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations Properly composting biodegradable materials instead of mixing these wastes help enrich the soil. Also, proper disposal of wastes prevents the build-up of harmful chemicals from decomposing wastes. Reduction in wastes helps in soil protection. If wastes are managed properly to produce fewer wastes, fewer landfills will be needed. With fewer landfills needed, fewer land resources will be disturbed and used as landfills. Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations Reduction in use of chemicals is an important method to keep the soil from getting sterile. Reforestation helps in protecting soil resource from elements of erosion. It provides permanent plant cover for the soil to avoid erosion. This method is a long-term solution for soil resource protection.  “You know, whenever anyone says something really funny and I laugh, I always look around to see if you think it's funny too. Even when you're not there, I still look around.“ -Dr. George O’Malley Human Activities and Environment John Aldrich G. Cortez, RN  Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem Services – – Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem Services – Ecosystem Services How People Generate Different Types of Waste How People Generate Different Types of Waste – How People Generate Different Types of Waste Solid Waste How People Generate Different Types of Waste How People Generate Different Types of Waste How People Generate Different Types of Waste – Liquid Waste How People Generate Different Types of Waste – Gaseous Waste  – Methods of Ways Disposal  – – Methods of Ways Disposal  – Methods of Ways Disposal  Methods of Ways Disposal  – Methods of Ways Disposal Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the Community – Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the Community – Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the Community Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the Community How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health and the Environment How Different Types of Waste Affect the Environment How Different Types of Waste Affect the Environment  – How Different Types of Waste Affect the Environment How Different Types of Waste Affect the Environment   How Different Types of Waste Affect the Environment How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health