Psychology Chapter on Personality Theories

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Questions and Answers

What does Karen Horney's concept of 'womb envy' suggest?

Women wish to have greater political power than men.

Men desire to possess qualities traditionally assigned to women.

Women experience jealousy over men's physical capabilities.

Men's feelings of inadequacy stem from women's reproductive abilities. (correct)

According to Jung, what aspect does the personal unconscious lack?

Life energy

Religious significance

Collective unconscious (correct)

Ego awareness

What is the primary focus of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory?

The integration of individual identity with societal expectations. (correct)

The influence of childhood experiences on adult personality.

The development of physical abilities over time.

The fixation of personality traits during adolescence.

What can lead to self-defeating behaviors according to Horney's theory on neurotic needs?

The pursuit of unrealistic goals. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a misunderstanding of libido in Jung's theory?

Libido is solely about sexual desire. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main aims of cross-cultural psychology?

To compare psychological phenomena across different cultures Signup and view all the answers

What do 'emics' refer to in the study of cultural characteristics?

Components specific to certain cultures Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect describes a culture with weak external constraints on behavior?

Culture of Honor Signup and view all the answers

In which type of culture is maintaining alliances and respect for hierarchy emphasized?

Culture of Face Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic used to compare cultures?

Humor and seriousness Signup and view all the answers

What is a key focus of cultures defined by dignity?

Internal strength and equality in market economies Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about cultures of honor is true?

Insults are often viewed as threatening and can lead to violence. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of studying cross-cultural psychology?

To understand the generalizability of psychological theories Signup and view all the answers

What virtue is associated with the psychological crisis of Intimacy vs. Isolation?

Love Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary psychological crisis faced by individuals aged 25 to 65?

Generativity vs. Stagnation Signup and view all the answers

What outcome is likely for individuals who reflect positively on their lives during old age?

Wisdom Signup and view all the answers

Which psychological crisis is associated with the age range of 0-18 months?

Trust vs. Mistrust Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following critiques is mentioned regarding the psychological development model?

It is culturally bound. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Erik Erikson's theory of development?

Integration of the individual with the social environment Signup and view all the answers

According to Karen Horney, what is NOT one of the neurotic needs that stem from basic anxiety?

To achieve personal independence Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Karen Horney introduce as a counter to the idea of penis envy?

Womb envy Signup and view all the answers

What does Jung suggest about the nature of libido?

It represents general life energy Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of personality development does Erik Erikson emphasize?

Development is lifelong and changeable Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by cumulative personality change?

Personality traits increase in rank-order consistency as individuals age. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle explains that people develop a stable sense of identity?

Identity Development Signup and view all the answers

How does social investment contribute to personality change?

Via changing social roles that influence personality development. Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of correspondance imply?

Personality traits can remain consistent or become amplified due to person-environment transactions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of personality neuroscience?

Linking persistent psychological differences to brain structure and function. Signup and view all the answers

What method did Eysenck use to confirm his theory of Big Three Traits?

Statistical analysis through factor analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What pivotal idea does the study of personality neuroscience rest upon?

Individual personality cannot be fully understood without considering brain characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

What concept supports the idea that personality traits can change at any time?

Plasticity. Signup and view all the answers

What does the heritability coefficient for agreeableness indicate?

It has a significant genetic component. Signup and view all the answers

Which environment appears to have the most influence on personality development according to the data?

Non-shared environment Signup and view all the answers

What does a low correlation (r = 0.05 to 0.18) suggest about the shared family environment's role in personality?

It has little impact on personality development. Signup and view all the answers

What is one explanation for the small impact of shared environment in adults?

It is mainly significant during childhood. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the effective environment?

The subjective interpretation of environmental factors. Signup and view all the answers

What does c represent in the context of personality development?

The shared environment's effect on making individuals similar. Signup and view all the answers

In measuring heritability for neuroticism, what does a coefficient of 0.43 indicate?

There is a moderate genetic contribution. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of environmental factors being objectively shared but effectively non-shared?

Different individuals may experience the same environment differently. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Cumulative Continuity principle suggest about personality traits as individuals age?

Individuals exhibit greater behavioral consistency to fulfill adult roles. Signup and view all the answers

What has longitudinal evidence indicated about personality change over time?

People become more agreeable and emotionally stable with age. Signup and view all the answers

What is a main concern regarding cohort effects in personality research?

They can lead to misinterpretations of age-related personality changes. Signup and view all the answers

How many participants were involved in the 152 longitudinal studies conducted by Roberts & DelVecchio?

50,207 participants Signup and view all the answers

Which range of ages was included in the studies by Roberts & DelVecchio?

From 6 weeks to 73 years Signup and view all the answers

What trend does rank-order consistency demonstrate across the life course?

It tends to stabilize as individuals grow older. Signup and view all the answers

What does evidence suggest about personality traits at different life stages?

They generally increase in traits necessary for adult roles. Signup and view all the answers

What does cross-sectional evidence suggest about personality development?

It highlights significant differences due to generational influences. Signup and view all the answers

What concept refers to the exaggerated sense of worthlessness in Jung's theory?

Inferiority Complex Signup and view all the answers

Which part of Carl Jung's theory contains inborn memories that shape human behavior?

Collective Unconscious Signup and view all the answers

What do archetypes in Jung's theory represent?

Universal symbols influencing thoughts and behaviors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'Self' in Jung's Theory?

A balance between the persona and shadow of an individual Signup and view all the answers

What are the two basic attitudes in Jung's theory related to how individuals interact with the outer world?

Extraversion and Introversion Signup and view all the answers

Which function in Jung’s theory involves using five senses and focusing on the concrete realities?

Sensing Signup and view all the answers

In Jung's eight personality types, which term describes an individual who processes information primarily through analysis and logical reasoning?

IT Signup and view all the answers

What does the correlation of $r = .60–.90$ indicate about childhood personality and adult behavior?

Childhood personality consistently predicts adult outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the consistent individual differences in behavior that are biologically based?

Temperament Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains that fundamental temperamental tendencies remain constant while the behaviors associated with them may change?

Heterotypic Continuity Signup and view all the answers

What does the Cumulative Continuity principle suggest about personality traits across the lifespan?

Personality ratings align more closely in young adulthood. Signup and view all the answers

What factor is suggested to have little/mixed research support regarding its effect on personality stability?

Birth order Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the caution regarding biological determinism in relation to personality?

Biological factors can influence personality but do not solely determine it. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily leads to the stability of personality traits over time?

Intrinsic genetic programming. Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the evidence for rank-order consistency in personality stability?

Individuals maintain consistent relative standings in personality traits. Signup and view all the answers

What trait was added later to Eysenck's P-E-N model?

Psychoticism Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is associated with introverts according to Eysenck's theory?

More sensitive to sensory stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What distinction does Eysenck's Arousal Hypothesis make between introverts and extraverts?

Introverts have a higher resting level of arousal Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the ARAS is true?

It controls how much nervous system stimulation enters the brain. Signup and view all the answers

How do introverts typically respond to stimulation compared to extraverts?

They are more arousable and respond more quickly. Signup and view all the answers

Which conclusion can be drawn from Eysenck’s revised theory?

Introverts exhibit greater sensitivity to new sensory reactions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a behavior typical of introverts, based on the ARAS model?

Minimizing exposure to sensory overload Signup and view all the answers

What is the optimal arousal level according to Eysenck’s theory?

70 Signup and view all the answers

How do introverts generally react when exposed to lemon juice, based on Eysenck's findings?

They show a stronger salivation response. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key trait associated with psychoticism in Eysenck's model?

Creativity and impulsivity Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Jung's Theory of Personality

Jung believed that religion played a significant role in his theory of personality.
Jung’s concept of the unconscious is more expansive than Freud's, including the "collective unconscious".
For Jung, the Ego encompasses all levels of the mind, not just the conscious part.
Libido for Jung is a non-sexual general life energy.
Jung believed that personality development continues throughout life.

Karen Horney and Feminine Psychology

Horney rejected Freud’s idea of penis envy.
Horney attributed the desire to be a man to social expectations and power dynamics in society.
Horney proposed the concept of "womb envy" to challenge Freud’s assumptions.

Anxiety and Neurotic Needs

Horney identified "basic anxiety" that developed in childhood and leads to "neurotic needs" in adulthood.
Neurotic needs are unrealistic and often contradictory, leading to self-defeating behaviors.

Erik Erikson

Erikson focused on the development of the ego (identity) and how it integrates with the social environment.
He proposed a stage model of psychosocial development, suggesting that personality is malleable and develops over the lifespan.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology explores how psychological phenomena differ across cultures.
It seeks to understand commonalities and differences in human behavior, cognition and emotion.
Cross-cultural research is important for understanding the diversity of human experience and generalizing findings.

Etic vs. Emic

Etic approach focuses on universal aspects of ideas across cultures.
Emic approach examines elements of ideas that are unique to specific cultures.
Etic and Emic approaches provide a comprehensive understanding of cultural variations and similarities.

Characteristics of Culture

Cultural characteristics include "toughness/easiness", "achievement/affiliation", and "complexity".
Head vs. heart cultures prioritize different types of thinking: logic and reason vs. emotion and social harmony.
Tightness vs. looseness cultures vary in terms of social control and tolerance for deviance.
Honor, face, and dignity cultures emphasize different values and social norms: respect for hierarchy, reputation, and individual strength.

Cross-Cultural Psychology: Study Findings

A meta-analysis of 145 studies examined the heritability of personality traits in twin studies.
Heritability estimates for the Big Five traits were consistently high, suggesting a significant genetic influence on personality.
Shared environment (c) had a minimal impact on personality, highlighting the importance of non-shared environment (e).
The concept of "effective environment" emphasizes how individuals experience and interpret their environment, influencing personality.

Principles of Personality Change and Stability

Cumulative continuity principle suggests that personality traits become more stable over time.
Maturity principle emphasizes that individuals develop skills and cope with life challenges better as they age.
Plasticity principle states that personality can change despite being stable, but it might be challenging.
Role continuity explains how adopting roles consistent with personality contributes to stability.
Identity development strengthens consistent behaviors aligned with one's self-image.
Social investment refers to changing social roles throughout life that impact personality development.
Corresponsive principle explains how personality and environment interact, resulting in personality stability or growth.

Personality Neuroscience:

Personality neuroscience explores the biological basis of personality by studying brain structure and function.
The discipline seeks to establish links between traits and genetic and environmental influences.

Early Theories of Brain Structure: Phrenology

Phrenology is a historical theory that linked personality traits to specific areas of the brain.

Eysenck's Big 3 Traits

Eysenck’s theory identified three major personality traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
Eysenck proposed neurobiological underpinnings for these traits.

Rank-Order Consistency

Longitudinal studies have confirmed that personality traits tend to remain stable (rank-order consistency) across the lifespan.
The consistency often increases with age.
Studies suggest that people become more stable and consistent with age, but personality development and change still occur.

Evidence for Personality Development

Personality development involves changes in the average level of a personality trait over time.
Researchers use cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to investigate personality development.

Cross-Sectional Evidence of Personality Development

Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one point in time.
Studies consistently show that people become more agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, and socially dominant with age.

Cohort Effects

Cohort effects refer to the potential impact of generational factors on personality development.
Differences in personalities across age groups might be due to social and historical experiences of different generations.

Longitudinal Evidence of Personality Development

Longitudinal studies track the same individuals over time.
Longitudinal studies generally confirm the findings of cross-sectional studies, indicating that personality development continues throughout life.
The findings are aligned with the maturity principle: traits needed for adult roles increase with age.

Carl Jung's Theory of Mind

Ego: The conscious part of the mind.
Personal Unconscious: Includes repressed and unimportant information.
Complexes: Clusters of emotionally loaded thoughts within the personal unconscious.
Collective Unconscious: Inborn memories and ideas shared by all humans, shaping thoughts and behaviors.
Archetypes: Part of the collective unconscious, not consciously remembered but shaping thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Examples include the hero, the devil, earth mother, and the snake.
Anima: The female component of a man's psyche.
Animus: The male component of a woman's psyche.
Persona: Outwardly visible self.
Shadow: The dark part of the psyche.
Self: Resides between the persona and shadow, trying to balance conflicting aspects of the mind; the conscious part of the self is the ego.

Carl Jung's Theory of Personality: Basic Ways of Thinking

Attitude: How a person relates to the outer world.
- Extraversion: Focused outside, social, unfocused.
- Introversion: Focused inside, thoughtful, private.
Function: How a person sees the world/processes information.
- Thinking: Logical, observant.
- Feeling: Evaluates in terms of value, liking, worth.
- Sensing: Uses the five senses, realistic, concrete.
- Intuiting: Uses hunches, creative.

Jung's 8 Personality Types

Thinking: IT, ET.
Feeling: IF, EF.
Sensing: IS, ES.
Intuiting: IN, EN.

Freud vs. Jung

Freud considered religion unimportant, while Jung emphasized religion and spirituality.
Freud focused on the personal unconscious, while Jung included the collective unconscious.
Freud's ego encompassed all levels of the mind, while Jung's ego was conscious only.
Freud defined libido as sexual, while Jung defined libido as general life energy.
Freud focused on childhood and adolescence for development, while Jung believed development was lifelong.

Karen Horney & Feminine Psychology

Rejected Freud’s concept of “penis envy”
Proposed cultural explanations for "the masculine wish"
Emphasized "power envy" over "penis envy"
Introduced the concept of “womb envy”.

Anxiety & Neurotic Needs

Basic anxiety acquired in childhood can lead to neurotic needs in adulthood.
These neurotic needs include:
- The need for a perfect “other half.”
- The need to be loved by all.
- The need to dominate others.
- The need to be entirely independent.