Chapter 3 Research on Life-Span Development PDF

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA OBSERVATION Scientific observation requires an important set of skills. Effective observation is systematic: Have some idea of what is being looked for, Know whom are being observed, When and where to observe, How the observations wil...

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA OBSERVATION Scientific observation requires an important set of skills. Effective observation is systematic: Have some idea of what is being looked for, Know whom are being observed, When and where to observe, How the observations will be made, and How they will be recorded. Laboratory vs. Naturalistic Observation Laboratory observation. It is done in a controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the “real world” are removed. Naturalistic observation. Studies that involve observing behavior in real- world settings. Naturalistic observation provides insights that sometimes cannot be attained in the laboratory (Babbie, 2017). Disadvantages of Laboratory Research: 1. It is almost impossible to conduct research without the participants knowing they are being studied. 2. The laboratory setting is unnatural and therefore can cause the participants to behave unnaturally, e.g., Hawthorne Effect. 3. People who are willing to come to a university laboratory may not accurately represent groups from diverse cultural backgrounds, e.g., Volunteer Bias. 4. People who are unfamiliar with university settings and with the idea of “helping science” may be intimidated by the laboratory setting. SURVEY AND INTERVIEW Advantages Relatively easy to administer or conduct, Can be developed in less time, Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode, Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, or telephone, Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical dependence, Capable of collecting data from many respondents, A broad range of data can be collected (e.g., attitudes, opinions, beliefs, values, behavior, factual). Disadvantages: The reliability of survey data may depend on the following factors: Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers, Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in an unfavorable manner, e.g., Social Desirability Bias Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of memory on the subject, or even boredom, Data errors due to question non-responses may exist. The number of respondents who choose to respond to a survey question may be different from those who chose not to respond, thus creating bias. STANDARDIZED TESTS A standardized test has uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person’s performance to be compared with that of other individuals; thus they provide information about individual differences among people (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018). E.g., 16 PF, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Neo-Pi, Ravens Progressive Matrices  CASE STUDY A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals. A case study provides information about one person’s experiences; it may focus on nearly any aspect of the subject’s life that helps the researcher understand the person’s mind, behavior, or other attributes (Yin, 2012). Examples: Mental health Challenges among University Students: An Introspective Case Study An Analysis of Effective Teaching Strategies for Students with ASD. PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES Researchers are increasingly using physiological measures when they study development at different points in the life span (Bell & others, 2018).  Hormone Levels. Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that is linked to the body’s stress level and has been measured in studies of temperament, emotional reactivity, mood, and peer relations (Bangerter & others, 2017). Also, as puberty unfolds, the blood levels of certain hormones increase. Heart rate has been used as an indicator of infants’ and children’s development of perception, attention, and memory (Kim, Yang, & Lee, 2015). Further, heart rate has served as an index of different aspects of emotional development, such as inhibition, stress, and anxiety(Amole & others, 2017).  Eye movement has something to do about perceptual development and other developmental topics. Sophisticated eye-tracking equipment is especially being used to discover more detailed information about infants’ perception (Boardman & Fletcher-Watson, 2017), attention (Meng, Uto, & Hashiya, 2017), autism (Finke, Wilkinson, & Hickerson, 2017), and preterm birth effects on language development (Loi & others, 2017).  Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Electromagnetic waves are used to construct images of a person’s brain tissue and biochemical activity (Park & Festini, 2018; Sullivan & Wilson, 2018). Electroencephalography (EEG) is a physiological measure that has been used for many decades to monitor overall electrical activity in the brain (Najjar & Brooker, 2017). Gene Assessment. Genetic testing can provide a diagnosis for a genetic condition such as Fragile X or information about your risk to develop cancer, and several specific genes that are linked to childhood obesity (Zandona & others, 2017). fMRI Sample EEG Test RESEARCH DESIGNS Designs 1. Descriptive research is designed to observe and record behavior. 2. Correlational research attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. 3. Experiment is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. Examples: A descriptive study on the of students in favor of online classes. An experiment to test the effects of a new teaching method on children’s reading skills, where one group of students uses the new method, and another group uses a standard method. A study that investigates the relationship between the amount of time children spend on watching TV and their academic performance. An Example of Correlational Study Finding in Developmental Psychology TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH Cross-Sectional Study Study people of different ages/ groups at the same point in time. ADVANTAGES Inexpensive, Can be completed quickly, Low attrition rate DISADVANTAGES Different age groups are not necessarily much alike Differences may be due to cohort differences rather than age Example: Comparing and contrasting vocabulary skills of 5-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and 15-year-olds to study language development.  Cohort effects are characteristics determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age. Cohort effects are due to a person’s time of birth or generation but not actually to age. Think for a moment about growing up in (left) the Great Depression and (right) today. Cohort effects help to explain differences in the intelligence of people born at different points in time. Batang 90’s https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=gXcfBPihi5Q  Longitudinal Study Study the same age / group of people over time. ADVANTAGES Detailed information about subjects Developmental changes can be studied in detail Eliminates cohort differences DISADVANTAGES Expensive and time consuming Potential for high attrition Example: In a study that examines the link between smoking and stomach cancer, you will have to wait several years to see any results since negative effects of smoking accumulate over decades. Sequential Designs: It combine elements of longitudinal and cross- sectional designs by following multiple age groups over time. Advantages: Can separate cohort effects from age-related changes, providing more comprehensive data. Disadvantages: Complex and expensive, requiring careful planning and analysis. Example: Studyingtwo cohorts, one starting at age 5 and another at age 10, and following both groups for 5 years. Biographical or Retrospective Study Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life ADVANTAGES Great details about the life of an individual, In-Depth study of one person, DISADVANTAGES Recall of individual may not be accurate, and Can be expensive and time consuming CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH APA’s guidelines address four important issues: 1. Informed consent. All participants must know what their research participation will involve and what risks might develop. Even after informed consent is given, participants must retain the right to withdraw from the study at any time and for any reason. 2. Confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous. 3. Special Considerations for Vulnerable Populations: When working with vulnerable populations such as children, researchers must take extra precautions to ensure their safety and well-being. This includes obtaining parental consent, ensuring the research is age-appropriate, and being sensitive to the needs and rights of participants. 5. Minimizing Harm. Benefits vs. Harm of research. 6. Debriefing. After the study has been completed, participants should be informed of its purpose and the methods that were used. In most cases, the experimenter also can inform participants in a general manner beforehand about the purpose of the research without leading participants to behave in a way they think that the experimenter is expecting. 7. Deception. In some circumstances, telling the participants beforehand what the research study is about substantially alters the participants’ behavior and invalidates the researcher’s data. In all cases of deception, however, the psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm the participants and that the participants will be debriefed (told the complete nature of the study) as soon as possible after the study is completed. MINIMIZING BIAS Assignments/ Library Work ❑ How do we minimize bias/es in conducting research on life-span development? Provide citations and references Use size 8.5”x11” paper, 1” margin and single space Save as PDF using this format: Surname, Initials_Assignment1 ❑1 sample research (local or international studies in journal format), maximum of 6-8 Pages. Rename the file using this format: Surname, Initials_SampleResearch1 Example: https://cegh.net/article/S2213-3984(15)00082-2/pdf