Chapter 2.1 - Ethical Theories PDF

Moral Systems, Ethical Concepts & Theories Chapter No. 2 Learning Outcome CLO1: Recognize various ethical theories which can be used to form the basis of solutions to ethical, security and social issues in computing. Topics 1. Moral System 2. Ethical Theories Morality A society is an associatio...

Moral Systems, Ethical Concepts & Theories Chapter No. 2 Learning Outcome CLO1: Recognize various ethical theories which can be used to form the basis of solutions to ethical, security and social issues in computing. Topics 1. Moral System 2. Ethical Theories Morality A society is an association of people organized under a system of rules. Rules of conduct describe what people ought and ought not to do in various situations. Rules are designed to advance the good of its people over time. These rules are called morality. Ethics is the “study of morality” Morality is a system whose purpose is to prevent harm and evils in addition to aiming at promoting human flourishing. …Gert Ethics is the philosophical study of morality, a rational examination into people’s moral belief and behaviour. Ethics is the “study of morality” Morality is a system of… ◦ Rules that guide human conduct (rules of conduct) ◦ Directives (at micro level) for individual conduct ◦ Social policies ( at the macro level) for society at large ◦ Principles for evaluating the rules ◦ Standards used to justify the rules e.g., justice, fairness, respect for others Basic Components of a Moral System Rules of Conduct Principles of Evaluation (Action-guiding rules, in the form (Evaluative standards used of either directives or social to justify rules of conduct) policies) Examples include principles such as of social utility and justice as fairness Rules for guiding the Rules for establishing actions of individuals social policies (micro-level ethical (macro-level ethical rules) rules) Examples include directives Examples include social policies such as: such as:"Do not steal" and "Software should be protected“ and Tavani "Do not harm others." "Privacy should be respected." Morality- Principles When we talk about principles for morality or immorality we could be talking about ✓ moral foundations of care (for the vulnerable), ✓ fairness (co-operation without exploitation), ✓ loyalty (to our social groups), ✓ authority (understanding of position in a hierarchy) or sanctity Four features of a moral system Public Informal Rational Impartial The rules are The rules are The system is The system is known to all informal, not based on not partial to of the like formal principles of any one members. laws in a legal logical reason group or system. accessible to all individual. its members. Four features of a moral system Gert describes a moral system as one that is public The system is public, he argues, because everyone must know what the rules are that define it. Morality is also informal because, Gert notes, a moral system has no formal authoritative judges presiding over it. A moral system is rational in that it is based on principles of logical reason accessible to ordinary persons. Morality cannot involve special knowledge that can be understood only by privileged individuals or groups. A moral system is impartial in the sense that the moral rules are ideally designed to apply equitably to all participants in the system. Deriving and Justifying the Rules and Principles of a Moral System On the one hand, rules of conduct for guiding actions in the moral system, whether individual directives or social policies, are ultimately derived from certain core values. Core values are the fundamental beliefs of a person or organization. They dictate behaviour and can help people understand the difference between right and wrong. Deriving and Justifying the Rules and Principles of a Moral System Principles for evaluating rules of conduct, on the other hand, are typically grounded in one of three systems or sources: religion, law, or (philosophical) ethics.  Components of a Moral System Grounds for justifying moral Religion Philosophy Law principles Moral principles Principles of Evaluation and rules Rules of Moral Conduct Source of moral rules Core Values Why we engage in philosophical/ethical analysis To critically evaluate arguments To support a position or claim. To convince someone to adopt or reject a certain position. To provide consistent (logical) reasons for our beliefs. To engage in meaningful dialogue.  What ethical theories have in common? They identify what it means to “do the right thing”. They assume that people have free choice to make their own rational decisions. Their goal is generally to contribute to the well- being of humanity. They distinguish obligations & responsibilities from choice & personal preference. Ethical Principles: Four goals Beneficence: The principle of beneficence guides the decision maker to do what is right and good. This priority to “do good” makes an ethical perspective and possible solution to an ethical dilemma acceptable. Last Harm: least harm deals with situations in which no choice appears beneficial. In such cases, decision makers seek to choose to do the least harm possible and to do harm to the fewest people. Ethical Principles Respect for Autonomy: This principle states that decision making should focus on allowing people to be autonomous—to be able to make decisions that apply to their lives. Thus, people should have control over their lives as much as possible because they are the only people who completely understand their chosen type of lifestyle. Justice: The justice ethical principle states that decision makers should focus on actions that are fair to those involved. Types of ethical theories The standard types of ethical theories: Ethical Relativism Divine Command Theory Duty-based(Deontology) Consequence-based (Utilitarian), Contract-based (Social contract theory) , and Character-based (Virtue ethics). Everyone is entitled to his or her own opinion, right? Ethical (subjective/cultural) relativism Theory Relativism is a theory which states that there are no universal moral norms of right and wrong. According to this theory, different individuals or groups of people can have completely opposite views of a moral problem, and both can be right. Ethical (subjective/cultural) relativism Theory This theory suggests that different environments spawn different ethics: ◦ Historical times ◦ Countries ◦ Communities ◦ Families ◦ Individuals Ethical Relativism Theory is of two types Subjective Relativism Cultural Relativism  Subjective Relativism 1-22 Ethical Subjective Relativism Subjective relativism ◦Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself ◦One person can say “X is right,” another can say “X is wrong,” and both can be right Ethical Subjective Relativism Subjective relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one approves of it. A person’s approval makes the action right. This doctrine (as well as cultural relativism) is in stark contrast to moral objectivism, the view that some moral principles are valid for everyone.  Case for Subjective Relativism Subjective relativism implies that each person is morally dependable and that individuals can never have a genuine moral disagreement. Well-meaning and intelligent people disagree on moral issues. 1-25  Case Against Subjective Relativism Blurs distinction between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to do Makes no moral distinction between the actions of different people (Hitler, Teressa) It allows people to make decisions based on something other than reason. Not a workable ethical theory: because it is based on the idea that each person decides for himself/herself what is right or wrong. 1-26 Cultural Relativism 1-27  Cultural Relativism in a Nutshell Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it. The argument for this doctrine is based on the diversity of moral judgments among cultures: because people’s judgments about right and wrong differ from culture to culture, right and wrong must be relative to culture, and there are no objective moral principles. 1-28  Cultural Relativism in a Nutshell What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral guidelines These guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in other society or at another time 1-29 Advantages of Cultural Relativism 1. It is a system which promotes cooperation and respect. 2. It creates a society where equality is possible. 3. It preserves human cultures 4. We can create personal moral codes based on societal standards with ease. Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism 1. It creates a system that is fuelled by personal bias. When people are given the power to define their own moral code, then they will do so based on their own personal bias. 2. It would create chaos. People who can follow their own moral code because there is no “wrong” or “right” would be allowed to pursue any life they preferred under the theory of cultural relativism. Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism 1. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of humanity, which is not happening in real situations. 2. It could promote a lack of diversity We cannot create diversity when the emphasis of a society is individualistic gain that can come at the expense of others.  Is CR a workable theory? Not a workable ethical theory because it has significant weakness as a tool for ethical persuasion. It suggests that there are no universal moral guidelines. It gives tradition more weightage in ethical evaluation than reasons or facts. 1-33  Divine Command Theory 1-34 Divine Command Theory Divine command theory is an ethical view based on theism or the belief that God exists. Followers of the theory accept that all moral judgment is derived from an understanding of God's direct commandments. In other words, "what is in accordance with God's command is moral and what is contrary to that command is immoral" (Farnell, 2005). Divine Command Theory Good actions are those aligned with God’s will Bad actions are those contrary to God’s will The holy books of each religion (e.g. The Bible, Koran, and Torah) contain God's directions. Therefore, they can be used as guides to distinguish between morally good and bad actions and take moral decisions.  Advantages of Divine Command Theory 1. We owe obedience to our Creator. If you disobey God, you will be punished. If you follow his commands, you'll be rewarded. 2. God is all-good and all-knowing 3. God is the ultimate authority 4. God's commands set forth universal moral rules. The rules can be applied to anyone, at all times and places. The belief that God is eternal and never changes means that his commands are as relevant today as when they were first 1-37 recorded. Advantages of Divine Command Theory 5. God's commands don't depend on what others think are right or wrong. His commands are completely objective. 6. Finally, traditional religions are centuries old and have recorded many of God's commands. Religious texts allow us to know and understand the character of God, and they make it easier to know how to act morally. Disadvantages of Divine Command Theory 1. Society is multicultural, secular, so it is unrealistic to assume a multicultural society will adopt just one religion based morality. 2. Under divine command theory only one religion can be correct and the followers of that God are the only ones leading moral lives (Austin, 2006). This leads into the next objection. 3. This theory focuses more on obedience than on reasoning. Disadvantages of Divine Command Theory 4. God's commands can be easily misconstrued. That is, how do we determine the correct interpretation of the sacred texts? During this process of interpretation, we are actually exercising our own sense of morality. We must rely on our own understanding of God's goodness and act on moral laws we deem consistent with God's commands (Adams, 1999). We cannot take ourselves completely out of the picture when determining God's position on ethical issues. Is DCT a workable theory? Not a workable ethical theory ◦Moral guidelines are not the result of a logical progression from a set of underlying principle.  Ethical Relativism Theory Subjective relativism is Cultural relativism is the the view that an action is view that an action is morally right if one morally right if one’s approves of it. A person’s culture approves of it. approval makes the action right. Not a workable ethical theory: Not a workable ethical theory because it is based on the because it has significant idea that each person weakness as a tool for ethical decides for himself/herself persuasion. what is right or wrong. Divine Command Theory Good actions are those aligned with God’s will Bad actions are those contrary to God’s will Not a workable ethical theory Moral guidelines are not the result of a logical progression from a set of underlying principle.