Chapter 2 Psychological Research PDF

Chapter 2: Psychological Research Principles for the Development of a Complete Mind: Study the science of art. Study the art of science. Develop your senses- especially...

Chapter 2: Psychological Research Principles for the Development of a Complete Mind: Study the science of art. Study the art of science. Develop your senses- especially learn to see. Realize that everything connects to everything else. - Leonardo da Vinci 1 Auguste Rodin (1902) The Thinker } What does it mean to think critically? } Why is it important? 4 1  DUDE, IT’S IT’S A AN FACT! OPINION! } Facts are observable realities } Opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. 5 } Psychology - Using the scientific method to study human behaviour and mental processes } Pseudopsychology (pseudoscience) - No use of the scientific method when commenting on human behaviour and mental processes Ex: parapsychology, astrology, psychics etc. 6 2  } In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested in the real world } In inductive reasoning, real-world observations lead to new ideas } These two processes are intertwined 7 8 3 9 I. Why is Psychological Research Important? II. Approaches to Research III. Analyzing Findings IV. Ethics 10 4  Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. 17 Theory is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes and predicts behaviors or events. A theory is more than a hunch. HYPOTHESIS A testable prediction – Often implied by a theory – Bias 18 5 19 20 6  I. Why is Psychological Research Important? II. Approaches to Research III. Analyzing Findings IV. Ethics 21 I. Descriptive Studies: Describes, does not explain II. Correlational Research: Describes relationships between variables III. Experimental Research The only method where you can begin to determine causation 22 7 23 There are some times when we cannot (either for ethical or practical reasons) manipulate variables. Types of Descriptive Studies 1. Case Study 2. Observation 3. Surveys 24 8  } Case Study is a description of an individual based on observation or some form of psychological testing. “Genie”- raised in isolation ◦ Critical period for language development occurs between early childhood and puberty 25 } An intensive study of 1 or 2 people } Advantages Only method you can use if the type of behaviour you are looking at is rare Very detailed } Disadvantages You cannot generalize your results to all people Cannot determine cause and effect 26 9  Observe, record and measure behaviour - researcher attempts to avoid impinging on the subject Observational techniques attempt to obtain representative sample- random sampling 27 } Naturalistic Observation: observe in organisms natural environment 28 10  Cognitive and Behavioural Ecology (CABE) - MUN } Hawthorne Effect ◦ People being observed in studies will often change their behaviour, simply because they are being watched. Whether naturalistic or laboratory observation: Never sure if the investigator is affecting behaviour 29 } Laboratory Observation: observation in more controlled (though artificial) environment 30 11  } Questioning or interviewing individuals } Wide range of topics } Good surveys: ◦ The questions are clear and unbiased ◦ Random, representative sampling of population 31 Ask people directly about their behaviours Advantages Data collection is quick Cheap Disadvantages Sometimes people don’t tell the truth Wording effects Cannot determine cause and effect 32 12  I. Descriptive Studies: Describes, does not explain II. Correlational Research: Describes relationships between variables III. Experimental Research Only method where you can begin to determine causation 34 Correlational research describes the strength of a relationship between two events or characteristics Correlation: a measure of how strongly the two variables are related Correlation Coefficient: mathematical statistic used to express a correlation (always falls between -1.0 and +1.0) 35 13  } Two parts to the correlation coefficient 1) Number (0-1) 2) Sign (+ or -) } The number indicates the strength of the relationship: The closer the number to 1.0 or -1.0 the stronger the relationship } The + or – sign in the correlation coefficient indicates the direction 36 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Correlation coefficient r = + 0.37 Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the Indicates direction relationship between two variables. of relationship (positive or negative) When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. 37 14  Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship. 38 High values of BOTH variables. ______________ 39 15  High values of one associated with LOW values of another. ______________ 40 41 16  Do not assume that because there is a negative correlation coefficient that there is no relationship between the variables! 42 The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Light on Light off Confirming Disconfirming Bumpy evidence evidence Not Disconfirming Confirming bumpy evidence evidence 43 17  I. Descriptive Studies: Describes, does not explain II. Correlational Research: Describes relationships between variables III. Experimental Research Only method where you can begin to determine causation 44 MISCONCEPTIONS 45 18  EXPERIMENT 1. Investigator manipulates variables 2. Attempts to control (hold constant) other factors to test hypothesis 3. Can begin to discern ‘cause and effect’’ 46 47 19  Independent variable: the variable in which the experimenter manipulates Dependent Variable: the variable which is observed or measured in response to the independent variable 48 Identify the independent and dependent variables in each of the following examples: Dr. Smith examines how daily exposure to a sun lamp (1 hour of exposure or no exposure) impacts people’s depression levels in the winter time. 49 20  Identify the independent and dependent variables in each of the following examples: Does watching aggressive TV cartoons influence a child’s level of aggressive behaviour? 50 Identify the independent and dependent variables in each of the following examples: Does the amount of time reading this textbook (every day, once a week, or none) influence how well you will do on the exams? 51 21  } An operational definition is how we (the researcher) decide to measure our variables ◦ There are often hundreds of ways to measure a variable (e.g., aggression, depression) ◦ When you do research, you have to decide how you are going to measure the IV and DV 52 Implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive “practical applications”. Revision of theory leads to further questions. 53 22  } Population - The entire group that is of interest to researchers } Sample - A portion of any population that is selected for the study } Random selection - Randomly choosing a sample from a population } Sampling bias - Choosing a sample that does not represent your population 54 A sample or a population? Professional hockey players 10 students from the University of Toronto Albino rats 100 adults over the age of 65 55 23  } Experimental group - the group that is exposed to the IV (manipulation or treatment) } Control group - the group that isn’t exposed to the IV; this group is used to compare how the IV changes the DV 56 Random Assignment ◦ Method of assigning subjects to control and experimental groups ◦ Each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to EITHER group The Placebo A fake treatment used as control Subjects do not know what treatment they are receiving Receiving a treatment (even Control) can have effects 57 24 58 59 25  I. Why is Psychological Research Important? II. Approaches to Research III. Analyzing Findings IV. Ethics 61 How Do Psychologists Make Sense of Research Results? 62 26  Inferential statistics - help to draw conclusions about the data Using various statistical tests you can determine a p- value which tells you the probability that the results of your experiment are not due to chance. For example: if you have a p-value of lower than.05, that means there is only a 5% likelihood that your results occurred by chance 63 } So you found a statistically significant difference between the two groups! Problem solved A caused B ◦ violent video games cause aggression. } Peer-review: Publish your findings in journals. Share your findings with other members of the scientific community and open up your work to scrutiny. It’s the only way to improve our understanding of how humans process their reality. 64 27  } Do we just take one researchers word for it? Nope! ◦ Replication - replication crisis? ◦ Vary Conditions ◦ Vary in Time 65 } Reliability: Consistency ◦ Inter-rater; internal consistency; test-retest } Validity: Accuracy ◦ Ecological; construct; face 66 28 67 } Research Ethics Boards (REB) are considered the ethics police. They are a research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study. 68 29  } Ethical guidelines: ◦ Obtain informed consent—obtaining permission from the participant after they know what the study involves and the risks and benefits of participating ◦ Protect participants from harm and discomfort 69 } Ethical guidelines: Protect confidentiality Participation must be voluntary Deception or Incomplete Disclosure Provide complete debriefing—revealing to participants any information that was withheld during the study 70 30  } There are also ethical guidelines for research with non human animals as that particular population are unable to provide consent ◦ Use for research, teaching, and testing is acceptable ONLY if it contributes to understanding fundamental biological principles, or to knowledge that can be expected to benefit animals and humans ◦ Only if the researchers best efforts to find an alternative sample has failed ◦ Employ the most humane methods of the smallest number of appropriate subjects to obtain valid information ◦ Limit pain and distress 71 31