Chapter 2 Theory & Research PDF

Theory & Research Chapter 2 Window on the World: Purposes of Cross-Cultural Research In what ways is development universal? Language development Motor development Bias in Western theories and research? Linguistic barriers Observational issues Cross-cultural compa...

Theory & Research Chapter 2 Window on the World: Purposes of Cross-Cultural Research In what ways is development universal? Language development Motor development Bias in Western theories and research? Linguistic barriers Observational issues Cross-cultural comparison pitfalls? Guideposts for Study 1. What purposes do theories serve, and what are the two theoretical issues on which developmental scientists differ? 2. What are five theoretical perspectives on human development and their representative theories? 3. How do developmental scientists study people, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each research method? 4. What ethical problems may arise in research on humans?  Basic Theoretical Terms Theory A set of logically related concepts that seek to describe and explain behavior and to predict what kinds of behavior might occur under specific conditions Provides groundwork for hypotheses Hypotheses Tentative explanations that can be tested by further research  Theories of Development: Is Development Active or Reactive? Mechanistic Model: Passive ú Locke: tabula rasa ú Children are “blank slates on which society writes” ú People are machines reacting to environment  Theories of Development: Is Development Active or Reactive? Organismic Model: Active ú Rousseau: “noble savages” ú Children set their own development in motion ú People initiate events, don’t just react  Theories of Development: Continuous or Discontinuous? Mechanistic Theories: Continuous Focus on quantitative change Same processes are involved Think of a ramp  Theories of Development: Continuous or Discontinuous? Organismic Theories: Stage Focus on qualitative change Different processes involved Think of stairs Five Major Perspectives Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive Contextual Evolutionary/Sociobiological Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Psychoanalytic Unconscious forces motivate human behavior Psychoanalysis: Therapy that gives insight into unconscious emotional conflicts  Freudian Parts of Personality Id Pleasure Principle Ego Reality Principle Superego Follows rules of society Freudian Psychosexual Stages Stage Age Unconscious Conflict Birth to about15 Oral Sucking & feeding months 12–18 months to Anal Potty training 3 years Phallic 3 to 6 years Attachment to parents Latency 6 years to puberty Socialization Genital Puberty to adult Mature adult sexuality Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory “Neo-Freudian” Emphasized influence of society Development is lifelong, not just during childhood Each of eight stages of development involves a “crisis” Crisis resolution gains a “virtue” ú Infancy: trust vs. mistrust Learning Theory Learning Long-lasting change in behavior, based on experience  Learning Theory: Behaviorism We respond based on whether the situation is: Painful or Threatening Pleasurable  Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning John Watson: Conditioning of Fear Orphan boy “Little Albert” 1. Albert liked the furry rat 2. Rat presented with loud CRASH! 3. Albert cried because of noise 4. Eventually, site of rat made Albert cry  Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning Individual learns the consequences of “operating” on the environment Learned relationship between behavior and its consequences B. F. Skinner formulated original ideas by working with animals, then applied them to humans Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Increases likelihood of behavior reoccurring Positive: Giving a reward Candy for finishing a task Negative: Removing something aversive No chores for getting an A+ on homework Operant Conditioning: Punishment Decreases likelihood of behavior reoccurring Positive: Adding something aversive Getting scolded Negative: Removing something pleasant Taking away car keys Getting a “time-out” Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura: Development is “bidirectional” Reciprocal determinism—person acts on world as the world acts on the person Observational Learning or Modeling Children choose models to imitate  Social Cognitive Theory: An Update to Modeling Emphasizes cognitive processes as central to development Beginning of “self-efficacy” People observe models and learn “chunks” of behavior § Imitating dance steps of teacher § … AND other students  Cognitive Theory Focuses on thought processes and behavior that reflects those processes Includes organismic and mechanistic theories  Piaget: Cognitive Stage Theory Clinical Method Combining observation with questioning Development begins with an inborn ability to adapt Rooting for a nipple, feeling for a pebble  Piagetian Cognitive Growth: Organization =A tendency to create complex cognitive structures, or “schemes” =Schemes =Organized patterns of behavior used to think and act in a situation =Infants suck bottles AND thumbs  Piagetian Cognitive Growth: Adaptation How children handle familiar information Two processes: Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemes Accommodation: Changing structures to include new information These steps are balanced through equilibration Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky Stresses children’s active interaction with social environments Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding  Information Processing Approach Analyzes processes involved in perceiving information Helps children be aware of their own mental strategies … and strategies for improvement! Information-Processing Approach: Computer-Based Models Infers what happens between stimulus and response Often uses flowcharts to define steps of processing that people use Unlike Piaget, views development as continuous Information Processing Approach: Neo-Piagetian Theories Focus on specific concepts, strategies, and skills Number concepts Comparisons of “more” and “less” Contextual approach Development can be understood only in its social contexts Urie Bronfenbrenner Describes range of interacting influences that affect development Identifies contexts that stifle or promote growth Home, classroom, neighborhood Bronfenbrenner’s Five Contextual Systems Evolutionary/Sociobiological Theory Uses Darwin’s evolutionary theory Survival of the fittest Animals with traits suited to environment survive These adaptive traits are passed on to offspring Natural selection As environments change, traits change in adaptiveness Evolutionary Theory: Ethology Study of distinctive behaviors that have adaptive value Innate behaviors evolved to increase survival odds Think of imprinting Squirrels’ burying of nuts  Evolutionary Psychology How biology and environment interact to produce behavior and development Humans unconsciously strive for personal survival and genetic legacy ú Result: A development of mechanisms that evolved to solve problems ú Morning sickness actually protects fetuses  Research Methods Quantitative Qualitative Objectively Non-numerical data measurable data ú Feelings ú Standardized tests ú Beliefs ú Physiological changes  Scientific Method: Quantitative Research 1. Identify problem 2. Formulate hypotheses 3. Collect data 4. Analyze data 5. Form conclusions 6. Share findings Sampling Sample A smaller group within the population Studying the entire population is inefficient Random Selection Each person in population has an equal chance of being in sample Data Collection: Self-Reports Diaries Recording daily activities Interviews Ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or behavior Can be open-ended or a questionnaire Data Collection: Naturalistic Observation “People watching” Behavior is observed in natural settings, without interfering Limitations Can not inform causes of behavior Researcher cannot know all possible influences on behavior  Data Collection: Laboratory Observation Behavior observed and recorded in controlled environment More likely to identify and control causal influences Limitation: Observer Bias: A researcher’s tendency to interpret data to fit expectations  Behavioral and Performance Measures Objective measures Mechanical and electronic devices Assessing skills, knowledge, and abilities Heart rate Brain activity Intelligence tests  Meaningful Measures Reliable Results are consistent from time to time Valid The test actually measures what it claims to measure  Measures: Operational Definitions Defining abstract ideas in objective terms What is intelligence? A score on a test Are there different kinds of intelligence? Emotional intelligence Academic intelligence  Social Cognitive Neuroscience Emerging field Bridges mind, brain, and behavior Uses data from: Cognitive neuroscience Social psychology Info-processing approaches Research Designs Type Characteristics Pros Cons Reduced Case Study Study of individuals Flexibility generalizability Universality of Ethnographic Study of cultures Observer bias phenomena Cannot Positive or negative Enables Correlational establish cause relationships prediction and effect Establishes Controlled Reduced Experiment cause and procedures generalizability effect Case Studies Study of an individual (such as Genie) Offer useful in-depth information Shortcomings Not generalizable No way to test conclusions Ethnographic studies Describe patterns that make up a society’s way of life Relationships, customs, beliefs, arts, traditions Participant observation Subject to observer bias Useful in cross-cultural research Correlational Studies  Experiments: Groups Experimental People who are exposed to the treatment Control Similar to the experimental group but do NOT receive the treatment  Experiments: Variables Independent Experimenter has direct control over Dependent Something that may or may not change as result of changes in independent variable  Experiments: Random Assignment Participants have an equal chance of placement in experimental or control group(s) Helps avoid unintentional differences between groups  Experiments: Location Control over cause and effect varies, depending on location: Laboratory – most control Field – controlled Everyday settings Home or school Natural – least control Research Designs Cross People assessed at one point in time sectional Same people studied more than Longitudinal once Complex combination of cross- sectional and longitudinal Sequential Adds more data than either design alone  Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs Sequential Designs Ethics Balancing benefits or research against mental and physical risks to participants Considerations Right to informed consent Avoidance of deception Right to privacy Confidentiality Ethics Researchers are guided by Beneficence Respect Justice Researchers should be sensitive to participants’ developmental needs and cultural issues and values  Research Methods in Psychology https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFV71QP vX2I