U3 + U4 Psychology Notes 2024 PDF

U3 OUTCOME 1 - NERVOUS SYSTEM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING ========================================================== #### **[[THE NEURAL IMPULSE, NEUROTRANSMISSION & NEUROMODULATION]](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjQxODYxMjMwNTI1/details) - 22/11/23** ##### ##### **Neurotra...

U3 OUTCOME 1 - NERVOUS SYSTEM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSING ========================================================== #### **[[THE NEURAL IMPULSE, NEUROTRANSMISSION & NEUROMODULATION]](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjQxODYxMjMwNTI1/details) - 22/11/23** ##### ##### **Neurotransmitter -** a chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue. **Excitatory effect (Glutamate) -** activates the opening of sodium (Na+) channels. [Depolarisation] occurs, [increasing] the chance of an action potential firing. **Inhibitory effect (GABA) -** activates the opening of potassium (K+) channels which flows out of the cell and/or chloride (Cl-) channels that flow into the cell. [Hyperpolarization] occurs, [reducing] the chance of action potential firing. ##### **The Lock and Key Process** - each neurotransmitter is a [distinct molecular shape] and has a [matching receptor site] on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron with a *complementary* shape.  ##### **Neuromodulators -** neurotransmitters that modulate (influence) the effects of other neurotransmitters. There are many medications that act as neuromodulators. - - ##### **Neuromodulation vs Neurotransmission** \- Neuromodulators [influence] how receptors react to another neurotransmitter. \- Neuromodulation tends to affect a far broader area of the brain than a single synapse. \- Neuromodulators take more time to create an effect, and the effect tends to last longer. \- Neuromodulation can involve multiple neurotransmitters working together to influence the reactivity of neurons. #### **[[THE NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY]](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjQyMDI0ODY1ODYz/details) - 22/11/23** ##### **Learning -** the relatively long-lasting change in behaviour due to experience. - - - - ##### **Memory -** the outcome of learning. It indicates that learning has occurred. It allows new knowledge and skill to be stored in and retrieved from the brain. ##### **Neural Plasticity -** the ability of the brain's neural structure or function to be changed through experience throughout the lifespan. Its mechanisms are: - - - ##### **Synaptic Plasticity -** refers to the ability of the synapse to change in response to experience. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - - - - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - ##### **Long Term Potentiation (LTP)** - refers to the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission. - - - ##### **Long Term Depression (LTD) -** the long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission. - - #### **[[STRESS AND COPING]](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjQ3ODkxNTI4NDU4/details) - 30/01/24** ##### **Stress -** a state of psychological and physiological arousal that occurs when an individual must adjust to challenges (stressors) in their internal external environment which challenges their ability to cope. - - - - **Acute Stress -** intense, **brief** physiological arousal in response to **an immediate stressor**. Generally no adverse effects on health. A series of acute stressors one after the other is referred to as **acute episodic.** **Chronic Stress -** **prolonged**, physiological arousal in response to a **persistent stressor**. This can result in **negative effects** on health/wellbeing. ##### **Yerkes-Dodson Law (Arousal-performance phenomenon) -** a certain amount of anxiety can enhance performance too much and can impair it. - - - ##### **Stress Responses: The Psychobiological Approach** - - ##### **[Biological Stress Responses]** **The Fight-Flight-Freeze response -** an involuntary response to a threatening, fearful or otherside stressful situation, involving physiological changes produced by the sympathetic nervous system. - - - - ##### **The Role of the Cortisol -** most abundant type of corticosteroid released by the adrenal cortex as the levels naturally fluctuate throughout the day as it releases in response to specific circumstances. - - - - - - - - - ##### **The Gut-brain Axis -** a bidirectional, multi-faced communication link between the central & enteric NS. It involves direct & indirect pathways between cognitive and emotional areas in the brain with the gastrointestinal tract. - - - ##### **Gut Microbiota -** each person has a composition of [gut microbiota] compromising all the microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi and viruses) present in the digestive tract. - - ##### **Gut Dysbiosis -** refers to an unbalanced gut microbiome, either in number or type of microbiota. This can cause the following effects: - - - ##### **Biological Stress Response - General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)** *Hans Selye - suggests people pass through 3 distinct stages during the 'non-specific' stress response:* - - - - - - - - - **STRENGTHS** **LIMITATIONS** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Explains the connection between the stress response and immune response. Doesn't explain why some individuals react differently to stressors Analytically based evidence of physiological processes involved in stress response. Doesn't acknowledge the psychological processes involved in the stress response. #### **[[PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS MODELS AND COPING]](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjYxODgwNjU5MTMx/details)** - 06/02/24 ##### **[Psychological Stress Responses]** **Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping** 1984 - American Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman developed a model of stress to explain individual differences in how we respond to stressors. - - - - **STRENGTHS** **LIMITATIONS** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Respects the personal appraisals of a situation, therefore interpreting the situation from an individual's perspective. Overlooks physiological responses to stress and how they could impact the appraisal. Allows for the fact that stressors and the circumstances in which they occur can change over time. Difficult to test through experimental research because of the subjective nature of the individual's response to stress. ##### **Coping -** a process involving 'cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage a specific internal and/or external stressors that are appraised as exceeding the resources of the person' in a stressful situation. - - - ##### **Approach & Avoidance Strategies -** one system of classification for coping strategies distinguishes between approach and avoidance strategies. - - ##### **Context Specific Effectiveness -** occurs when there is a match between the coping strategy that is used and the stressful situation. - - - ##### **Coping Flexibility -** the ability to modify and adjust coping strategies to meet the demands of stressful situations. - - - - - - - - RESEARCH METHODS ================ **Research Methods -** ways to conduct an investigation **A controlled experiment -** an experimental investigation to test the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling all other variables. **A controlled variable -** considered to have an effect on the dependent variable in an experiment so it needs to be held constant to remove its potential effects. **Condition -** a trail of an experiment, where one group of participants is observed and data is taken or measured. **Experimental condition -** the IV will be present, so there will be a manipulation. **Control condition -** the IV will not be present. **Operationalising -** describing exactly how the variables will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV). **To operationalise the IV,** describe the difference between the conditions. **To operationalise the DV,** describe exactly how and what you will be measuring, including all details and timing involved. - - - **Repeatability -** refers to the idea that if the [same participants] were to complete the same study again, under the same conditions and the same methods, that their results would be consistent with the previously collected data. **Reproducibility -** refers to the idea that the same study could be conducted on a [different set of participants] from the same population, using the same conditions and methods, would show a similar relationship between the IV and DV as the earlier study. #### [**[NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS - 6/03/2024]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjY3MjEzNTA0Mjg4/details) **Correlational study -** used to investigate the relationship that exists between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher. Eg: 'How high is the rate of violent crime when the weather is hot? Or when the weather is cold?' - - - - **Correlation Coefficient** is a number that represents the direction and strength of a correlation. **It ranges from -1.00 to +1.00.** +1.00 is the strongest **positive** correlation. -1.00 is the strongest **negative** correlation 0 means there is no (**zero**) correlation. **Self-reports -** a participant's answers to questions that are provided by the researcher. - - - **Questions can be in the form of:** - - **Observational Studies -** involve the collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation. - - **Naturalistic Observation -** occurs in a participant\'s natural 'real-life' environment, with no manipulation or control processes. **Contrived Settings -** occurs when a researcher creates a setting specifically for an observation. **Case studies -** an intensive investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation. **Simulation studies -** involve reproducing situations of interest in a realistic way. Participants are asked to behave as if they were in a real-life situation. **ERROR AND EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES - 8/03/24** **[Controlling sources of error]** **Errors in research** - refers to anything that could cause the data collected to not be accurate or reliable, and prevents the conclusions from being justified or trusted. - - -  **Random errors** will reduce [precision], which is how closely a set of measurements agree with each other. **Systematic error** will reduce the [accuracy], which is how close it is to the true value of the quantity being measured. **Extraneous and Confounding Variables -** variables that cause errors. - - **Participant variables -** the personal characteristics of individual participants cna influence their response. These can be biological, psychological and social in nature. **Situational variables -** external factors, such as the setting or context of the experiment, can affect how the participants respond. **Demand characteristics -** cues in an experiment that might influence or bias a participant's response. They affect a participant's expectations of what the experimenter is looking for. **Experimenter effects/bias -** refers to any influence the experimenter or researchers may have on the results of their investigation. **Placebo effect** U3 OUTCOME 2 - LEARNING AND MEMORY ================================== #### [**[CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - 13/03/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjY4Njc3NzQ1OTcx/details) **Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov 1899) \[INVOLUNTARY\] -** the process of learning where two unrelated stimuli are repeatedly paired until an association is acquired, and an existing reflex response is elicited by a new stimulus. - - **Key Terms to explain the process:** - - - - - **Classical conditioning: The 3-Phase Process** 1. 2. 3. **Class example:** Before conditioning, the NS was broken glass which Arun had no response to. The UCS was the mother screaming which had resulted in the UCR of Arun crying in fear. During conditioning., the pairing of the broken glass followed by the mother screaming which led to Arun crying in fear. An association between the NS and the UCS was acquired. After conditioning, broken glass is not the CS, as it leads to Arun crying in fear in response to the broken glass without the UCS. **Multiple Trial Learning** - - - #### [**[OPERANT CONDITIONING - 19/03/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjY5OTc4NTYzMDcy/details) **Operant conditioning \[VOLUNTARY\] -** a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future. - **The three phase model of operant conditioning (A-B-C)** - - - **B.F Skinner -** a behaviourist that believed that learned human behaviour could be explained completely through the environment. **Skinner Box -** Pigeons would receive a stimulus (**antecedent**) that would suggest a **behaviour**. If the **behaviour** was demonstrated, a reward **consequence** (food) was given. **Reinforcement -** occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency of an operant response that it follows. **- Reinforcer -** any stimuli that causes a strengthening or increase in frequency of a behaviour. - - **Punishment -** the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response. - -  **[Example:]** Zeta's dog Belle keeps escaping from the backyard by crawling through a gap under the fence. Zeta purchases a small detector that she places on either side of the gap and puts a collar on Belle that makes a high-pitched noise whenever she gets too close to the gap. The first time Belle tries to escape under the gap, the noise plays and distresses her. Soon Belle learns to avoid the noise by staying inside the backyard. **Antecedent Stimuli:** detector near gap + collar. **Behaviour:** escaping the gap. **Consequence:** get distressing noise (positive punishment). **Order of Presentation -** the consequence must occur after the behaviour. **Timing -** association is developed faster and the consequence is given directly after. **Appropriateness -** reward must be perceived as desirable by the learner, and the punishment must be undesirable. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **CLASSICAL | **SIMILARITIES** | **OPERANT | | CONDITIONING** | | CONDITIONING** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Behaviour of the | Associative Learning | | | learner **does** | - there is an | | | **not** influence the | acquisition process | | | environment. | to condition a | | | | response (NS + UCS | | | Involves an | associated & | | | **involuntary** | behaviour + desired | | | behaviour response as | consequence | | | the learner takes a | associated). | | | **passive role** in | | | | the learning process. | Extinction and | | | | Spontaneous Recovery | | | The UCS occurs first, | can both occur. | | | then the learned | | | | behaviour appears. | Stimulus | | | | Generalisation And | | | | Stimulus | | | | Discrimination have | | | | been observed in both | | | | models. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ #### [**[OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - 26/03/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjcxMjk0ODEzMzcx/details) **Observational Learning -** occurs when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions. - - - **Multi-stage process:** **Attention -** a learner **MUST pay attention** to the Model, if not, we cannot recognise the distinctive features of the behaviour. **Retention -** forming a **mental representation** of the behaviour that is more likely to be recalled if it is meaningful to the learner, it is stored accurately in memory or if memory strategies are effective. **Reproduction -** learner must be capable of imitating the behaviour (physically or psychologically). **Motivation -** the learner must WANT to perform the observed behaviour they must see the behaviour as rewarding or useful. **Reinforcement -** factors that can influence a learner's motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour AND increase the likelihood of reproduction. - - - **Social Learning** **Vicarious Conditioning -** the indirect learning by seeing other people being conditioned. A learner will be more likely to copy a model whose behaviour is reinforced, and less likely to copy the behaviour that is being punished. - - #### [**[WAYS OF KNOWING - SOCIO-CULTURAL LEARNING - 27/03/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjYwMDk2MDIyOTA2/details) **Key knowledge:** Social-cognitive approaches to learning that situate the learner within a system, as illustrated by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing where learning is viewed as being embedded in relationships where the learner is part of a **multimodal system of knowledge patterned on Country.** **The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ways of Knowing -** refers to the holistic approach to learning that includes the diversity of interaction between nations, clans, language groups, along with cultural and spiritual beliefs that are strongly tied to the landscape and Country. Broad commonalities in **ways of knowing** shared between distinct Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language groups: - - - - - **Country -** contains complex ideas about place, law, spirituality, language, cultural practices, material sustenance, family and identity. Bawaka country Collective defines it this way: - - - - **How is knowledge patterned on Country?** 1. 2. **Multimodal ways of learning** 1. 2. - #### [**[ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY - 16/04/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/Njc4MTY5MDQwMzM5/details) **Models to explain memory contain three fundamental processes:** - - - **ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY** Includes **structural features** (permanent, fixed features of memory) and **control processes** (consciously controlled, variable). **Sensory Memory -** the entry point of memory, where new incoming sensory info is briefly stored as an exact copy of 'raw' sensory data, in which the data remains just long enough for a person to attend to it. - - - **[Sensory Register ]** **Iconic Visual Memory -** allows for our visual world to be perceived fully. - - **Echoic Auditory Memory -** the brief retention period is long enough to attend and select information that has been heard and further process its interpretation, which is critical for the understanding of speech. - - **Short Term Memory/Working (STM) -** a memory system with limited storage capacity in which attended info is stored temporarily, unless renewed. - - **Manipulating info in STM:** - - - **Rehearsal:** - - **Long Term Memory -** not a single store, as it refers to a number of different types of memories that can be stored. Different regions in the brain are responsible for its processing and storage of the different types of long term memory. - - **Explicit memory -** for conscious and easily described memories. **Implicit memory -** for unconscious and difficult memories to describe. **Mnemonics -** devices which are techniques used for enhancing our improving memory. - - - - - **Songlines - Sung Narrative (Dreaming Track) -** a navigational route consisting of a sequence of locations. - - **Method of Loci/Written Culture** **Song Narrative/Oral Culture** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Links info to physical location. Links info to a physical location. Recalls sequential info, but without a deeper narrative. Recalls both sequential and holistic info, due to links with a larger cultural story and practices. Isolated items only have a single link (visual location) available for recall. Info sung in songs, with narrative meaning is more likely to be remembered than a list of isolated facts. Has a limited semantic connection. Relates to personal and cultural meaning.  #### [**[BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED WITH MEMORY - 19/04/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/Njc1MTcxNTkzOTU4/details) **Role of the Hippocampus** **Location:** Medial temporal lobe, slightly above the ear. **Structure:** tubular, curved (associated with seahorses). **Function:** Responsible for the formation and encoding of new semantic and episodic memory. Helps to ensure that they are neurologically stable and enduring prior to new learning experiences. **Consolidation -** the neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring prior to new learning experiences. **Role of the Amygdala** **Location:** Connected to just above the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe. **Structure:** Small and rounded, approx. 1.5 cm long. Connected to many brain structures. **Functions: -** Encodes and consolidates the **emotional content** of memories (episodic memory). \- Enables recognition and learned responses to emotional cues. **Flashbulb Memories -** vivid, highly detailed memories formed during a significant emotionally arousing event. **Role of the Cerebellum (mainly implicit)** **Location:** In hindbrain, at base and rear of brain. **Structure:** Cauliflower-shaped mass of densely packed neurons. **Function:** involved in the **formation** of temporary storage of **implicit, procedural memories** relating to coordinates, voluntary movements as well as classically conditioned responses. - **Role of the Neocortex (mainly explicit)** **Location:** The outer layer of the cerebrum, accounts for 90% of the cerebral cortex. **Structure:** Wrinkles structure, divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. Connected to nearly all parts of the brain, therefore taking part in almost everything we do. **Function:** Interacts with the hippocampus in the formation, **consolidation**, storage and retrieval of long-term explicit memory. - **The Basal Ganglia** **Location:** Lies deep in the centre of the brain, beneath the cortex, with connections to the neocortex, limbic system and other brain areas. **Structure:** A network of 5 pairs of nuclei **Function: Encoding and retrieval** of implicit memory tasks requiring voluntary motor skills. Also involved in habituation, the learning of not responding to a stimulus that occurs repeatedly **Encoding -** taking info from the outside world and transferring it from STM to LTM.  **DAMAGE TO AREAS OF THE BRAIN** **Hippocampus:** Impaired/absent consolidation of explicit (declarative) memory, left removal leads to difficulty learning/recalling verbal information and right removal leads to damaged spatial memory. **Amygdala:** impaired/absent ability to encode/recall emotional qualities of events, impaired ability to recognise facial expressions of emotions (especially fear) most prominent with **right** amygdala damage and inability to acquire/recall a classically conditioned fear response. #### [**[AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY, AD AND APHANTASIA - 1/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/Njc1OTg2NTI0NDk3/details) **Autobiographical memory (ABM) -** refer to memories related to past experiences that have occurred at some time in our own lives and include elements of both semantic and episodic memory. - **Episodic (EAM) -** retrieving sensory details of past events and imagining oneself in possible future events/scenarios. Hippocampus encodes and retrieves the EAM. **Semantic (SAM) -** facts about oneself such as ideas on our own personality and traits and a list of facts and knowledge about our own past. Neocortex retrieves the SAM. **Dementia -** neurodegenerative disorder due to the loss of brain cells with its symptoms including memory loss, decline in cognitive reasoning and behaviour & personality changes. Generally affects people in age, but can have early onset. - - Made up of a group of symptoms including **progressive decline** in mental functioning, behaviour and ability to perform everyday tasks. **Alzheirmer's Disease -** most common type of dementia, accounts for about 50-75% cases. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Early stage symptoms** | **Later stage symptoms** | +===================================+===================================+ | - - - - - | - - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Explicit memories are affected first (episodic, then semantic) followed by Implicit procedural memories. **Physical evidence of Alzheimer's** - - - - The image shows how early stage Alzheimer\'s patients use more areas of the neocortex when encoding and retrieving memory. **Aphantasia -** the inability to generate the mental imagery (typically visual imagery) with navigation skills unaffected and dreaming imagery is reduced/absent. - - **Mental imagery -** the ability to stimulate in working memory (STM) information that is not currently being detected by sensory organs. **Vividness -** the clarity, brightness or intensity of an image as reported by the individual. U4 **OUTCOME 1 - SLEEP** ======================== [**[SLEEP AS AN ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - 10/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjgzMjM0NDk4MzY0/details) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Consciousness -** the awareness of our internal and external environment, our sensations and mental experience, and our own existence at any moment of time. - **Features of Consciousness (Stream of consciousness, a subjective experience)** - - - -  **[Continuum of Consciousness]** **Normal Waking Consciousness (NWC) -** being awake and aware of your internal and external surroundings, including a good sense of time and place. **Altered State of Consciousness (ASC) -** any state that differs from NWC. Usually reduced awareness, but sometimes heightened. Generally reduced sense of time and place. - **Examples of Altered State of Consciousness (ACS)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Naturally Occuring** | **Purposefully Induced** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Daydreams -** an individual\'s | **Meditation -** mental exercise | | attention slips away from | that achieves a high focus on | | external stimuli to | relaxed breathing, shutting | | self-generated internal images. | | | Thoughts are disjointed, | out all other external stimuli. | | disorganised and emotional. | Can reduce pain. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sleep -** there is a reversible | **Alcohol-Induced State -** where | | behavioural state of | a substance slows or depresses | | | the brain and nervous | | perceptual disengagement from and | | | | system, dampening the effect of | | unresponsiveness to the external | external stimuli, disrupts | | | cognition and lowers social | | environment. | inhibition. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Sleep (regularly occurring ASC) -** a **reversible** behavioural state of **perceptual disengagement** from and an **unresponsiveness** to the environment. - - - **A psychological construct** is a concept, description or explanatory model that is designed to describe a psychological activity or pattern of activity. **Sleep as a psychological construct -** scientifically verifiable, measurable and predictable. Information has been obtained and studied by: - - - [**[MEASUREMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES ASSOCIATED WITH SLEEP - 10/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/Njc5MzUyMDMwNjky/details) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Physiological Indicators** - - **[Devices to measure brainwaves, eye + muscle movement to study ASC (OBJECTIVE)]** - **Electroencephalograph (EEG) -** detects, amplifies and records general patterns of electrical activity of the brain (brainwaves), over a period of time. - - - - - - - - **Electromyograph (EMG) -** detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles. Its recordings show the strength of muscle activity. Indicated by change in muscle activity and muscle tone. Electrodes placed on the skin above relevant muscles. **Electro-oculograph (EOG) -** detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of the muscles that controls eye movements. Electrodes attached over eye muscles. During REM sleep, there is exceptionally high activity from the EOG. **[Subjective Physiological Measures ]** **Sleep Diaries -** used to self record and self-report sleep and waking times and activities over time. **Video Monitoring -** used to study sleep disturbances and disorders through observing body posture, position, tossing & turning, breathing difficulties and behaviours associated with sleepwalking. [**[SLEEP RHYTHMS - 17/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/Njg0MjQ0ODQ3MzMz/details) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Biological Rhythms -** a cyclic change in bodily functions or activities that repeat themselves through time in the same order. This includes body temperature, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, hormonal secretion, level of alertness and the **sleep-wake cycle** **Circadian rhythm -** involves changes in the bodily functions or activities that occur as [a part of a 24 hour cycle.] - -   **Melatonin Release** A **biological clock** is an innate timing mechanism that regulates the cycle of a biological rhythm. Its functioning is genetically determined and occurs at the cellular level. - - **Melatonin levels during day and night** - -  **Ultradian Rhythms -** involves changes in the bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle [shorter than 24 hours]. Examples are our heart rate, respiration, hunger and sleep cycles. **A hypnogram -** shows the natural cycling of the different stages of sleep over an entire sleep episode. **NREM SLEEP -** accounts for 75-80% of total sleeping time, consisting of three stages (NREM 1, NREM 2 NREM 3). **Sleep Onset -** describes the transition period between from being awake to being asleep. - **Sleep Latency -** refers to the amount of time for sleep onset to occur. **REM SLEEP -** accounts for 20-25% of total sleep time, usually 4-6 times per sleep episode. Periods lengthen and occur more frequently as a sleep episode progresses. **Paradoxical Sleep -** the brain and body are internally active but externally calm and inactive as brainwave patterns are rapid with mixed frequency similar to alert wakefulness along with bp, heart rate and body temperature rising. However, muscle tension is completely relaxed. The **Arousal Threshold** of REM sleep varies, sometimes being like that of N2 and at other times like N3. [**[DEMAND FOR SLEEP ACROSS THE LIFESPAN - 22/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjkyNDI2MzY2MzMx/details) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Predictable, age-related changes** - - - **Newborns and Infants -** unusual REM length and irregular sleeping rhythms which are not circadian, and they need most sleep. **Young Children -** total sleep time starts to decrease to 11-13 hours per day, higher arousal threshold for the child when delta waves are dominant, they often skip the first REM period making for an extended NREM sleep in the first sleep wake cycle. **Adolescents -** A significant delay in melatonin release, in the first sleep cycle. This is due to biological change in their sleep-wake cycle as it delays the sleep onset by 1-2 hours. Although total time spent in sleep declines to around 8 hours, when expected is 9.25 hours. **Adults -** 20-25% of sleep is REM sleep with averaging 8 hours of total sleep whilst continuing to decrease. [**[EFFECTS OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION - 24/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjkyODE5ODM3MTM3/details) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Sleep Deprivation -** a state caused by a lack of sufficient quantity (measured in the amount of time spent in sleep) or quality (measured by self-reporting on how restored a person feels after sleeping, and is typically worse when the sleep cycle is disturbed) of sleep. - - **Effects of sleep deprivation:** - - - **[ABC Effects of Sleep Deprivation ]** **Affective (Emotional) Disturbances** **Affective functioning -** refers to our control over our emotional responses. The prefrontal lobe is responsible for decision making and emotional functioning, which is sensitive to sleep deprivation. - **Behavioural (Physical) Disturbances** **Sleep inertia -** the performance impairment that occurs after waking from a poor night's sleep, common especially if woken from someone in a NREM stage 3), lasting longer if the person is sleep deprived. **Excessive sleepiness -** during normal waking times manifests as fatigue, slow reaction time, lack of alertness and **microsleep** (an involuntary, brief period of sleep lasting 1-10 seconds, an individual may not be aware of this but can be aware that they lost focus). **Cognitive Disturbances** Negatively affects these processes - attention, our ability to complete simple tasks, spatial orientation, ability to plan, coordinate, encode and retrieve memories. **CASE STUDY: Dawson and Reid 1997 - Effects of Sleep Deprivation how to be similar to intoxication** **Aim of Study -** To determine how sleep deprivation can affect the conscious experience and adversely impact on human performance. **Hypothesis -** Increased levels of sleep deprivation will lead to an increased impairment of performance on cognitive tasks, as compared to the impact of BAC levels. **Findings -** There is a significant relationship between moderate sleep deprivation (17 hours w/out sleep) and BAC levels of 0.05% (legal limit for driving in Australia). At 24 hours without sleep, performance on cognitive tasks is the equivalent of a BAC level of 0.10%.  [**[CIRCADIAN RHYTHM SLEEP DISORDERS AND TREATMENT - 29/05/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjkzNDQ1NzQwNjAz/details) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Circadian rhythm sleep disorders -** involve the disruption of sleep due to a mismatch between the pattern of an individual's sleep-wake pattern and the pattern needed/required. [Reasons we might get out of sync with our sleep-wake cycles:] a malfunction of our biological mechanisms controlling our sleep-wake cycle, social/work/school schedule & changes in environment. **Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) -** occurs when the major sleep episode is delayed from the desired or conventional time it is meant to occur. Occurs more in adolescence due to delay of melatonin release. **Phase delay -** refers to how long sleep onset is delayed before the sleep episode begins. **Typical symptoms of DSPS:** - - - **Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD) -** a persistent disturbance in the sleep-wake cycle, resulting in an advance of the major sleep episode to a time earlier than desired or necessary. **Typical onset time** is between 6-8pm, and **wake times** between 1-3am. Results in daytime sleepiness and chronic sleep deprivation. **More common in older age,** rare disorder. **Shift-Work Sleep Disorder -** diagnosed when a person has insomnia when trying to sleep, and excessive sleepiness during working hours. Modern businesses can have employees working at all times, including during the day, afternoon and night shifts. **Fixed Schedule -** the employee continuously starts and ends work shift at the same time. **Rotating Schedule -** the employee changes between day/afternoon/night shifts every so often. **Symptoms of shift work disorder:** - - -  **Bright Light Therapy (BLT/phototherby) -** timed exposure of bright light to the eyes to help re-adjust the biological clock to the desired sleep-wake cycle. Can be simply sunlight or artificial (lightbox) with the 3 key variables being time of day, intensity of light and total time of exposure to BLT. **TIMING OF BLT FOR DIFFERENT DISORDERS** **Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder -** bright light can be shown [earlier in the morning] shifting the sleep wake cycle to an earlier time, so that the sleep episode will begin earlier in the evening. **Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder -** bright light can be shown [earlier in the evening] to delay the onset of sleep, so that the sleep episode will begin later in the evening. **Shift Work -** bright light is shown in the evening to delay sleep onset. **Improving Sleep Hygiene -** involves practices that tend to improve and maintain good sleep and full daytime alertness. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. **ADAPTING TO ZEITGEBERS** **Zeitgebers -** [environmental time cues] which are anything that could signal to a person what time it could be. Examples include light, alarms, schedules, medications and temperature. **Entrainment -** the process of the SCN using zeitgebers to adjust the biological clock to be in sync with the environment. Adjustments to this are the best when done gradually, 1-2 hour shifts per day cycle. **ADJUSTING TO LIGHT SOURCES** **Daylight -** when exposed to natural sunlight during the day, our biological clock is synced with sunrise and sunset. **Blue Light -** emitted by sun, LED, fluorescent lighting and back-lit screens. Exposure before sleep will delay sleep onset and suppress melatonin release, best to avoid 60 mins before bedtime. **ADJUSTING TO TEMPERATURE -** Our sleep cycle is closely tied to our body's core temperature cycle (thermoregulation). We tend to sleep more easily when our core body temp is cooler. **ADJUSTING TO EATING AND DRINKING PATTERNS -** Digestion should only occur during daytime, as food should not be consumed directly before bed. U4 **OUTCOME 3 - MENTAL WELLBEING** =================================== **[[MENTAL HEALTH AND WELLBEING (CH8) - 2/08/24](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NjkxNzUxNzQ4Mjg3/details) ]** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Mental Wellbeing -** refers to our state of mind, our enjoyment of life, and our ability to cope with the normal stresses of everyday life. It is more than the absence of a mental illness, it is also a capability to deal with challenges and bounce back from adversity. **Typical Characteristics of a Mentally Healthy Person** (productive, getting along with others, having a positive outlook on their ability to cope with day to day challenges, showing resilience.) **Functioning -** how well an individual independently performs in their environment. - **Adaptive behaviour -** actions that enable a person to effectively carry out everyday tasks. - **[Measuring High Levels of Functioning ]** **Understanding and Communicating -** the ability to learn, and apply knowledge, problem solving, remembering and comprehension of others while being able to maintain conversation. **Mobility -** the ability to move from one place to another, independently, and at desired. **Self Care -** taking time to look after oneself's health, nutrition, personal hygiene and independent living. **Getting along with others -** ability to maintain positive interactions with stranges and to make and maintain strong friendships or intimate relationships. **Life Activities -** ability to be productive and motivated in household, work and/or school setting. **Participation in Society -** participation in hobbies, sport, community activities, active free time for enjoyment, and the comfort level experienced while engaged in these events. **Wellbeing -** our overall mental and physical state in relation to our ability to function. **Social Wellbeing -** meaning that we can maintain healthy relationships, interact appropriately with others, respect others' differences, resolve conflicts, effectively manage unhealthy relationships, and feel safe and secure with others. **Emotional Wellbeing -** meaning that we can maintain awareness, understanding and control over our emotion; express our emotions appropriately; recognise emotions in others; having positive attitudes about emotional experiences; find acceptance and forgiveness; and reduce stress through responsibility and manage risk-taking. **Resilience to Life Stressors** **Resilience -** the ability to cope with and adapt well to life stressors. This can mean bouncing back from adversity. - **Self-efficacy -** belief that you will succeed when you are challenged. **ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PERSPECTIVE ON WELLBEING** - - **SEWB DOMAINS** **Connection to...** **Explanation** ------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Body** Involves all aspects of physical health + wellbeing, positive views of one's abilities. **Mind & Emotions** Person's management of their thoughts & feelings to protect against mental ill-health. **Family & Kinship** Acknowledging the complex systems that maintain a sense of belonging through cultural ties and caring relationships. **Community** Having opportunities in a shared space for individuals & families to support one another and work together. **Cultural Identity** Maintaining a sense of cultural identity through participation in cultural traditions and ways of knowing. **Country** Recognising one's spiritual & ancestral connection to the land to provide a deep sense of belonging and understanding. **Spirituality & Ancestors** Forming a relationship to past, present, and future of one's culture through art, song, story, ceremony and the Dreaming. **DEFINING STATES OF MENTAL WELLBEING** **Mentally Healthy -** being in a generally positive state of mental wellbeing, having the ability to cope with and manage life's challenges, working productively, striving to fulfil one's goals and potential, and having a sense of connection to others and the community in general. **Mental Health Problems -** a problem or concern that affects the way a person thinks, feels and/or behaves; and that interferes with functioning. **Mental Disorder -** mental health state that involves a combination of thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours which are usually associated with significant personal distress and impair the ability to function effectively in everyday life. **Mental illness is characterised by:** causing significant distress, ongoing (long term) duration, deviation from the norm (not everyone experiences it) and causes severe dysfunction and can be diagnosed.  +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Mental Health | **Definition** | **Characteristi | **How it | | State** | | cs | differs from | | | | associated with | the other | | | | this state** | mental health | | | | | states** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **Mentally | Being in a | \- Connected | Having a | | Healthy** | generally | to/active | positive | | | positive state | within the | outlook and | | | of mental | community | displaying | | | wellbeing | | active coping | | | whilst being | \- Resilient | strategies to | | | able to manage | | maintain | | | challenges in | \- Functional | function, | | | life, along | day-to-day | rather than | | | with being | coping | offering | | | productive and | | stressors to | | | connecting | | put them into a | | | socially. | | negative, | | | | | ongoing | | | | | mindset. Will | | | | | not display | | | | | ongoing | | | | | dysfunction due | | | | | to mental | | | | | illness, and no | | | | | exhibiting | | | | | severe | | | | | dysfunctioning. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Mental Health | Problems or | \- Impaired | With MHP, the | | Problems** | concerns that | functioning | dysfunction is | | | end up | | only mild to | | | affecting a | \- Loss of | moderate, as | | | person's well | sleep/appetite | opposed to a | | | being such as | | disorder which | | | interfering | \- Generally | causes | | | with | temporary or | severity, | | | functioning. | short term | problems will | | | | | have a shorter | | | | | duration than a | | | | | disorder. | | | | | Compared to the | | | | | mentally | | | | | healthy, a | | | | | person | | | | | experiencing | | | | | MHP will have | | | | | more negative | | | | | thoughts and | | | | | trouble | | | | | regulating | | | | | their emotions. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Mental | A serious | \- Severe | Consistent, | | Disorder** | long-lasting | distress | ongoing | | | impairment to a | | predictable | | | person's mental | \- | behaviours that | | | wellbeing that | Diagnosable/sym | cause severe | | | displays a | ptoms | dysfunctioning | | | pattern of | | which may | | | maladaptive | \- Severe | require a | | | mental | dysfunction | diagnosis | | | processes and | | aligned with | | | behaviours | \- Ongoing | treatment as | | | leading to | duration | compared to | | | personal | | being mentally | | | distress and | \- Occurs | healthy or MHP | | | dysfunction. | within | as both of them | | | | individual | can be shifted | | | | | in between | | | | | easily. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Internal Influences -** originate inside or within a person, and can be either biological or psychological. - - **External Influences -** originate from outside of a person. - **Stress -** a state of [psychological and physiological] arousal, produced by internal or external stressors, perceived by an individual as challenging or exceeding their ability to cope. **Anxiety -** a state of [physiological] arousal associated with apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong, or something unpleasant is about to happen. - - **Phobia -** an excessive or unreasonable amount of fear of a particular object or situation. - - - **Specific phobia -** a disorder characterised by [marked fear or anxiety of a specific] (real or perceived) [object or situation], which [leads to avoidance behaviour]. - - [**[SPECIFIC PHOBIA (CH9) - 14/08/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NzA0MDM3NTI4NDEz/details) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC PHOBIA** **Phobic trigger -** the object or situation that triggers a phobic response, which typically results in an **acute stress response** (fight-flight-freeze). **Panic Attack -** the sudden onset of intense fear, often associated with feelings of impending doom (physiologically, a person may feel shortness of breath, increased heart rate, sweating trembling). **Anticipatory Anxiety -** the increase in anxiety due to the anticipation of being exposed to the phobic stimulus, just by thinking of the phobia. **FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO SPECIFIC PHOBIA - BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS** **BIOLOGICAL** - - - - **PSYCHOLOGICAL** - - - - - - - - - **SOCIAL** - - - - **EVIDENCE BASED TREATMENTS/INTERVENTION - THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL LIST** **MEDICATION -** occurs when the GABA may be dysfunctional in specific phobia cases, not enough inhibitory effect happening, cannot stop fear/anxiety response. - **BREATHING RETRAINING -** occurs as the physiological stress response can lead to severe anxiety response in specific phobia. Anxiety response can lead to hyperventilation or tachypnea (rapid, shallow and uncontrolled breathing). This leads to an imbalance of O2 and CO2 in the blood. - **COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY (CBT) -** people with specific phobias have cognitive biases that make them assume and recall the worst aspects of their phobias. Avoidance behaviour is used to not be near a phobic trigger. Safety behaviours used to take large precautions when in presence of phobia. - **SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION -** the phobic stimulus causes a heightened anxiety response. Avoidance behaviour is negatively reinforced as a way to reduce anxiety. The extent of the avoidance behaviour becomes a problem by itself, and strengthens the idea that the phobia must be avoided.  - **PSYCHOEDUCATION -** Some aspects of specific phobia are not widely understood by the general population. This can lead to feelings of shame, embarrassment and helplessness. Friends and family may not know what to think or how to help intervene effectively. - **CHALLENGING UNREALISTIC, ANXIOUS THOUGHTS -** Distorted cognitive biases and catastrophic thinking lead to a perpetuation of negative thoughts and increased anxiety response. Worst outcomes are assumed. One negative thought leads to another, worse thought. - **DISCOURAGE AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOURS -** avoidance behaviours are reinforced by reducing the exposure to the phobia. This is only a short-term fix. Resilience on avoidance behaviour perpetuates the disorder, making a person more fearful, and more prone to overwhelming anxiety. [**[MAINTENANCE OF MENTAL WELLBEING (CH10) - 30/08/24]**](https://classroom.google.com/c/NjM5ODgzMDMyNjU0/m/NzA5MTQ5NTYxNTY3/details) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Protective factor -** something that **enhances and helps to protect mental wellbeing** and **reduces the likelihood that mental ill-health will occur.** This includes strengthening resilience, improving and expanding on coping strategies and guarding against risk factors. **Risk factor -** something that **increases the likelihood of experiencing mental ill-health**, or **makes existing conditions more severe and long lasting**. Examples include genetic vulnerability, poor sleep, irrational thinking, rumination, social withdrawal etc. **3 Key Qualities of Resilience:** 1. 2. 3. **A biopsychological approach to generalised protective influences that contribute to maintaining wellbeing.** **BIOLOGICAL PROTECTIVE FACTORS** **Adequate nutritional intake and hydration -** means having enough amount and variety of foods, and drinking enough water to maintain physical health, along with reducing intake of drugs and alcohol. **Adequate sleep -** refers to feeling well rested, refreshed and prepared for the day, with a positive attitude towards oneself and one's ability. **PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTIVE FACTORS** **Cognitive-behavioural strategies -** techniques used in CBT, designed to identify, assess and correct faulty thinking. **Cognitive Restructuring -** a technique that replaces dysfunctional thoughts with more helpful cognitions. Assessing our attitudes towards an object, person or situation that is potentially challenging our wellbeing. Therapists and clients can then examine common errors in thinking. **Behavioural Strategies -** improve mental wellbeing by introducing new behaviours as coping strategies to improve the individual's needs. This includes breathing retraining, relaxation training, skill training to improve functioning, anger management techniques and social skills training for improving interactions. **Behaviour Activation -** the identifying and scheduling of activities that promote enjoyment or reduce stress. This includes helping a person to set specific goals, making achievable plans. - **Mindfulness Meditation -** a person focuses their attention on their breathing, whilst thoughts, feelings and sensations are experienced freely as they arise. **Mindfulness** is awareness of one's internal states and surroundings, without making judgement on them. **SOCIAL PROTECTIVE FACTORS** **Social support** from family, friends and community refers to the assistance, care and empathy provided by others. - - - - **Social withdrawal** is a common perpetuating risk factor, so social support reduces the effects of social withdrawal. **Evidence-based advice for providing effective support** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **CULTURAL DETERMINANTS FOR WELLBEING OF ABORIGINAL & TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PEOPLES** **Culture -** a general way of life for a particular group, society or community that sets it apart from other groups. **Cultural Determinants -** [protective factors] that maintain a strong connection to culture. **Cultural Continuity -** refers to a people's ability to preserve the determinants of their culture over time. Allows them to pass knowledge of cultural practices to the next gen, essential for maintaining a sense of identity. Evidence for social and emotional wellbeing being tied to the ability to identify with culture has been seen in Indigenous communities across the globe. **Self-Determination -** the right for a cultural group to freely determine or control its own political status, and to freely determine or control its own political status, and to freely pursue its cultural, social and economic development.