Psychology Notes PDF

Psychology Clinical psychologists Will have a PhD in clinical psychology Can provide psychological treatment for specific disorders Cannot prescribe medicine since did not go to medical school and is not medical doctor PSYCHIARSTIST Went to medical school Can p...

Psychology Clinical psychologists Will have a PhD in clinical psychology Can provide psychological treatment for specific disorders Cannot prescribe medicine since did not go to medical school and is not medical doctor PSYCHIARSTIST Went to medical school Can prescribe medication Can provide psychological treatment for specific disorders DSM Manual used for diagnosis of mental disorders Standardized All clinicians should have this when diagnosing to ensure accuracy and consistency between clinicians Chapter 2 Why is research important Mental illness Inductive vs deductive reasoning Scientist form tentative ideas [theories /hypotheses] observing things in the real world [screen time and poor eating] Hypotheses are then tested through empirical observation and scientists form conclusions through evidence-based research  [measure actual screen time and collect information on what these teenagers ate] Use proper research to determine if there is a statistical relationship between screen time and eating habits/poor eating Concept to know Inductive reasoning =real world observations lead to new ideas/hypotheses to test Deductive reasoning =testing the idea/hypothesis with the research Theory= a way to explain observed phenomenon. Screen time is related to eating habits Hypothesis= if then statement to test the theory. If you use excessive screen time then you're eating habits will be worse The research method will test this hypothesis Scientific method= a systematic method to test a hypothesis using an evidence-based and objective method Clinical or case studies Focus on one individual or a specialized population that has few people that meet the criteria [child geniuses] [Olympic gold medalist] Allows fora lot of insight into a case Difficult to generalize results to the large population NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Jane goodall conducted naturalistic observation of chimpanzee behavior Observed in their natural environment Did not manipulation/change their situation in any way SURVEYS A list of questions that can be delivered in many ways  Paper and pencil Electronically Verbally Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of data from a sample [subset of individuals] from a larger population ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Example= going through letter from soldiers' to their wives and looking to see how often they mentioned being fearful Longitudinal and cross-sectional research Cross-sectional research; compares multiples segments of a population at a single time [such as different age groups] Measure screen time in children in grade 4,6,8 on the same day Longitudinal; studies in which in the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time Measure screen time of kids in grade4 then again when the same kids are in grade 6 and then again when in grade 8 This allows you to understand changes/patterns over time EXPERIMENTS A variable [something measured] is manipulated to see if it has an impact on an outcome of interest Assign certain hours of screen time to see if this has an impact on eating habits Some teens assigned to zero screen time over 1 month Some assigned to 3 hours/day over 1 month Some allowed unlimited over 1 month CAUSE AND EFFECT; CAUSATION [IMPORTANT] Many use the word” causes” incorrectly  If you do survey research you can only discuss correlations or relationships between variables ONLY when you conduct an experiment can you discuss cause and effect Unlimited screen time caused an increase in poor eating habits IMPORTANT TO KNOW DESIGNING AN EXPERIEMENT EXPERIEMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS EXPERIMENTAL GROUP-THE PARTICIPANTS THAT EXPERIENCE THE MANIPULATED VARIABLE [GROUP DESIGNED TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION] Control group-participants that do not experience the manipulated variable Serve as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study Experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance DESIGNING AN EXPERIEMENT AVOIDING BIAS AND THE PLACEBO EFFECT Experimenter bias-researcher expectations skew the results of the study Participant bias-participant expectations skew the results of the study Single-blind study –experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group but participants do not[controls for participants expectations] Double-blind study -experiments in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments [control for both participants and experimenter expectations]  PLACEBO EFFECT –people expectations or beliefs influencing or determine their experience in a given situation When people are given a pill to improve their mood there may increase just because they believe it will To know if the medication is really having effect or whether it us a placebo effect the experimental group receive the medication and the control group receive a placebo treatment [ a sugar pill].this is a double blind study VARIABLES Independent variable -variable that is influenced/controlled by the experimenter Dependent variable-variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had Outcome/result Eating habits/poor eating What can of experiment can I create? For exam think for a question SELECTING PARTICIPANTS [participants-subjects of psychological research Population is too large for a researcher to include everyone to samples are used Sample subset of individuals selected from the larger population Population –overalls group. of individuals that the researcher is interest [college students] Random sample –subsets of a layer population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected [draw from a hat] ISSUES TO CONSIDER ETHICS  Some questions cannot be answered using an experimental design because they would be unethical Example; the effect of experience abuse of as a child on levels of self- esteem You cannot randomly assign participants to receive abuse INTERPRETING EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS Once data has been collected a statistical analysis is conducted Statistical analysis-determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance Psychologist usually discuss results as significant or non-significant If significant the result are not due to chance Reporting findings Research is usually reported in scientific journals Aimed at an audience of professionals/scholars' articles published are peer journal articles Peer-reviewed journal- the publication must reach certain criteria/standards to be approved to be published RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Reliability – consistency and reproducibility of a given result Would the same test give the same result every time? Validity –accuracy of a given results in measuring what it is designed to measure Does it test measure what it is meant to measure? ETHICS INVOLVE HUMANS' PARTICIPANTS Informed consent- kept confidential  Potential risk involved GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Definition of gestalt theory Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole not in parts The essentials point of gestalt psychology is that in perception the whole is different from sum of its part Ivan Paylov ( classical conditionning) Discovered the concept of classical conditionning Learning by association Learning the sequence of events and predicting what comes next John B. Watson( Behaviorism) John is known as the father of behaviorism within psychology Believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible Instead he focused on observable behavior and ways to bring that behavior under control Today ,behaviorism is used in behavioral in behavioral therapy F.Skinner Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequence Studied modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment Abraham Maslow (humanism) Proped of hierchary of human needs in motivating. Behavior  First we are modivated to meet base needs necassery ofr survial[ food, water, shelter] After that, we are motivated to meet higher-level needs[social needs] BIOPSYCHOLOGY Hoe the structure and function of the nervous system influences behavior Examples can include, sleep, drugs use and abuse Sensation and perception Sensation-sensory information Perception- how we interpret that sensory information Developmental psychology Studies the physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation Jean piaget examined cognitive abilities that from infancy to adulthood PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Focus behavior and thought patterns that are unique to each individual Conscious and unconscious thinking and identifying personality traits Lots of research on personality traits that help us in life and those traits that cause problems E.g impulsiveness SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY How individuals interact and relate with others  How such interactions can affect behavior Persuasion Conformity HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY How individual health/illness is directly related to biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences E.g stress illness Clinical psychology Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior Clinical therapy and counseling Industrial-organizational The study of psychology in the workplace e.g effectiveness leadership Sports exercise psychology The focus of using psychological technique/skills to enhance athletics performance Forensic psychology Psychology in the justice system Assessment of individuals mental competency to stand in the trial, sentencing and treatment suggestions  BIOPSYCHOLOGY DONT NEED TO STUDY SUBJECT IN THE TEXTBOOK IF SHE DOESNT TALK ABOUT IN CLASS WHY WE STUDY THE BRAIN Everything we do is because of processes in the brain A visual of the nervous system [picture in the book] Central nervous system [cns] Brain and spinal cord Receives and processes information Peripheral nervous system Outside of CNS From senses to peripheral to CNS Controls organs From cns to the body Has 2 parts Somatic nervous system Voluntary movements Consciously controlled e.g walking e.g Bicep curls Autonomic nervous system Control automatic, involuntary functions[e.g heart beating] e.g when you exercise e.g digestion Autonomic nervous systems part 2 Sympathetic N.S- Go [fight or flight] Prepares body for action Emergency situations Stress Autonomic nervous systems Parasympathetic N,S- Stop Conserves energy Homeostasis and balance e.g massage e.g meditation The nervous systems-2 types of cells  Neurons Glia cells Glia cells Glia=glue Provide support Smaller in size than neurons Removes waste of the brain Myelin sheath Immune system Neurons Neurons=individual cells in the nervous system Receive, integrate and transmit information Soma=cell body [label a neuron so names the parts] Dendrites=receive information from other neurons Axon=carry information from cell body to another neuron Neuron continued Myelin sheath=fatty substance on axon Terminal buttons=small knobs at the end of axon that releases neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters=chemicals that provide messages Synapses=point at which neurons connect Neuron and neural impulse The neural impulse [ do need the name of the ions] Electrochemical reaction that moves through the neuron when its stimulated Electrically charged ions in and out of cell Resting state= -70 millivolts Action potential Neuron stimulated Electrical energy travels down dendrite To cell body Continues to axon if strong enough Channels open on axon Positive ions flow in and out of cell [change places] Channels close Moves its way down axon Action potential Refractory period occurs after action potential =rest period All or none principle=neuron fires or it doesn’t Never fizzles out Can't be increased once it starts The synapse Communication point between 2 neurons Synaptic cleft=microscopic gap Neurotransmitters=chemical Does the signal continue on? Excitatory signal=stimulates next neuron Inhibitory signal=stops the neuron from firing Neurotransmitters Specific neurotransmitters work at specific synapses Lock and key mechanism Neurotransmitters are powerful Control walking talking writing Control sleep and waking Control ability to focus Control mood See examples in the textbook The brain 1.5 k.g Billions of cells The brainstem Base of brain  Connects to spinal cord Breathing, cardiac function arousal or alertness Basic survival Transmits information Injury to brain stem Damage=life threatening Foramen magnum= opening at base of skull Brain swells Pressure put on brain Death or a coma Look at the lobes of the brain in the textbook Limbic system: Amygdala Regulates emotion and memory Activated before conscious awareness Elicits flight or fight response Cerebral cortex Most complex part of brain Folded to fit divided into left and right hemispheres Lateralization [the divided brain] Left and right hemisphere have different functions Brain crosses over to opposite side of body Left=right side of body Right=left side of body 2 hemispheres are not identical The study of learning  A permanent change in future behavior or knowledge as a result of experience Behaviorism Observable behaviors Associative learning When you make a connection between 2 things that go together in your environment 2 types: classical conditioning, operant conditioning Classical conditioning Learn to associate a sequence of events that repeatedly happen No rewards Horrors movie when there a scary music coming on Conditioning means learning Ivan Pavlov [ Russian physiologist, studied digestion in dogs, Nobel prize in 1904] Classical conditioning Behavior was elicited [brought out]by a stimulus that has acquired its power through an association with a biologically significant stimulus Repeated pairing of a stimulus with stimuli that naturally elicit a reflex response e.g salivation, pupil contraction, knee jerks Also called pavlovian conditioning Conditioning concepts Unconditioned stimulus UCS-food Unconditioned response UCR drool Conditioned stimulus CS –bell  Conditioned response CR drool How does this work in the real world? Fear and anxiety Phobias Little albert Loud sound UCS=fear UR Rat CS-loud sound UCS-fear UR Fear CR to rat CS Generalized to other animals Cont. Child going for a needle UCS? needle UCR? cry CS? White lab coat CR? Cry Real world-taste aversion Flu UCS Instant association formed after just one incident Wings CS Nausea UCR/CR Eat wings CS-flu UCS-vomit CR Processes of conditioning Acquisition-when you are learning Stimulus contingency-bell just before food Salient stimulus-notice it Extinction,CS with no UCS Spontaneous recovery-response seen after extinction  Are response specific to the stimuli? No Stimulus generalization, the more similar the new stimuli is to original CS, the more likely generalization will occur Stimulus discrimination, dog only respond to a bell and not a piano keyboard Operant conditioning Learn to associate a behavior with its consequence IMPORTANT Law of effect [Edward Thorndike and then BF Skinner] A response followed by satisfying consequences becomes more probable A response followed by dissatisfying consequences become less probable Example cat for law of effect Skinner box rats Process of operant conditioning Shaping- reward successive approximations of the desired behavior Amazing animal tricks Reinforcement important Positive=+something pleasurable [encourage the behavior] Negative=- remove something aversive NOT PUNISHIMENT Come up with your own examples of each Increases the desired response Punishment + something aversive or something pleasurable Decreases the undesired response Primary reinforcement  Do not learn to see them as rewarding e.g water, food Secondary reinforcement Was not originally reinforcing but became that way with experience e.g stickers on a chore diet Schedules of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Intermittent/partial reinforcement Which is strong? Why? Observational learning Learn by watching others and imitating Not a form of associative learning Albert bandura Chapiter 7 intelligence and thinking Cognitive psychology Cognition=thinking Is it used for process associated with perception Knowledge Problem-solving Judgement Language Memory Problem solving How you deal with problem solving that you are faced with?  Many test other due in the same week Dealing with a conflict with friend Problem solving=the act of defining a problem =Determining the cause of the problem =identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution =implementing a solution =being resilient with that solution [persevere] Problem solving strategy Try and error-keep trying different possible solutions until the problem is solved or the person give up Law of effect applies Successful trials are reinforced Behavior will be repeated next time e.g the cat in the puzzle box e.g research paper Problem solving 2- algorithm Step by step instructions followed to solve the problem e.g photos to find research article e.g recipes e.g GPS Problem solving 3-heuristics A mental shortcut we use to problem solving We use prior experience and general knowledge to try to solve a problem quickly But they are prone to Errors Lot of types of heuristics e.g the rule of thumb thinking trusts your gut, created based on your experiences e.g take a large goal and break it up into smaller ones Problem solving is prone to errors We make cognitive errors which can impact how weel we solve the problems These are forms of cognitive biases Functional fixedness Confirmation bias Functional fixedness Inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for You have, candle thumbtacks, a box of matches Example using a hammer only to hammer Using a stapler only to staple papers It can affect your relationships When you see a person as only having one role Seeing that your partner is always responsible for making dinner, even if you get home first Conformation bias The tendency to focus only on information that confirms your existing belief Will seek out, remember, and give more emphasis to evidence that supports our views Will ignore, dismiss or undervalue evidence that contradicts our views e.g your partner is disrespecting you but you want to believe they are the one Bought you flower once Made diner one time in 10 years Sometimes smile when they come home Confirmation bias An issue with health and wellness  e.g only eat tuna all day for months and they feel great They ignored that too much can mercury poisoning Why does it happen? We are not viewing the situation objectively/factually Stubborn Using emotions to make decisions Highly influenced by others/low self esteem Cognitive load exceeded-do not want to engage in more thinking Example engage with more people, ask questions Intelligence No agreed upon definition of this concept Is a measure of intellectual abilities Many different forms of intelligence Practical intelligence Street smart or commonsense or thinking on your feel Finding solutions in everyday life Solving real world problems Have strong intuition Example a person resolving a conflict and understanding each perspective and finding a compromise Analytical intelligence The ability to process information, analyze it, and solve problems with logic and critical thinking Used in academic Book smart e.g solving a math problem Typically tested on IQ test Creative intelligence  The power to think in unique and unexpected ways Ability to see possibilities when others only see problems/issues e.g fixer upper of a house Solutions are based on creativity Flexible mindset can adapt quickly to their Environnement Inventions Emotional intelligence Ability to perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate and use emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively If you have high EL you have high social skills Important student success Important for success in the workplace Example being open to feedback without getting defensive Recognizing and describing what people are feeling Asking open-ended questions Not gossiping Where does intelligence come from? Nature or nurture Twin studies show genetic influence whether raised together or not Developmental experiences Likely an influence of both Chapter 10 motivation and emotion The psychology of motivation  Motives: internal experiences of the reasons for our goal-directed behavior Consists of needs, drives, incentives Need= state of deprivation Physiological needs-e.g food, water, sleep, and oxygen-must be met for us to survive Psychological needs-e.g those for achievement, power, belonging, and self-esteem are associated with psychological well-being The evolutionary perspective Animal have instincts: inborn dispositions that activate certain goal- achieving behavior patterns Species-specific Human instincts foster survival and social behavior Drive reductionism and homeostasis Drive-reduction theory: organisms learn to engage in behaviors that reduce drives: Primary drives-such as thirst, hunger, or pain-trigger tension and activate [tension reducing] behavior Homeostasis; the body has a tendency to maintain a steady state [ by taking action to reduce tension] Acquired drives-such as the drive for money or social approval-are gained through experience Humanistic theory Abraham Maslow: humans are motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth Humans want to reach self-actualization: A state of being that include perceptive clarity, peacefulness, simplicity, a sense of mission Sensitivity to the needs of others  Sense of accomplishment Self-actualization in humans is as vital as hunger It pushes people to excel at their work, hobbies and other interest Humanistic theory-Maslow hierarchy of needs As hierarchical arrangement of categories of human needs Lower-levels needs must be met to have the drive to meet higher- level needs People can occupy more than one level at a time Achievement motivation Achievement motivation is the desire to strive for success and accomplishment People with high achievement motivation seem to prefer challenges and are willing to take moderate risks to achieve their goals Extrinsic versus intrinsic motives Extrinsic motivation: you are motivated to earn or receive an external reward that is a consequence of the behavior e.g money, praise Intrinsic motivation: you are motivated by the internal reward that is a consequence of the behavior e.g self-satisfaction  Young athletes start out by extrinsic motivation and then it becomes intrinsic Students need to focus on the intrinsic motivation Discipline: doing something to achieve a goal whether you feel like or not Emotions An emotion is an automatic neurological, physiological, and behavioral response pattern to a stimulus Can be positive or negative A feeling= the conscious awareness of an emotional state The expression of emotions Facial expressions are universal Positive psychology About personal well-being and satisfaction It deals with positive emotions Joy, sensual pleasure, and happiness Optimism and hope for the future Lots of research on the influence of positivity/optimism Growth mindset is a part of this Theories of emotion The theory of cognitive appraisal: emotions reflect arousal and appraisal of the situation The way we label our emotions depends on our appraisal of the situation