Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Coursebook PDF

Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Coursebook Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Coursebook Julia Russell, Fiona Lintern, Jamie Davies and Lizzie Gauntlett University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316605691 © Cambridge University Press 2016 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. 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Contents Issues and debates at AS Level 1 Research methods 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 Experiments Self-reports Case studies Observations Correlations Research processes The definition, manipulation, measurement and control of variables Sampling of participants Data and data analysis Ethical considerations Evaluating research: methodological issues Summary Exam-style questions 2 The biological approach 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Core study 1: Canli et al. Core study 2: Dement and Kleitman Core study 3: Schachter and Singer Issues, debates and approaches Summary Exam-style questions 3 Cognitive approach 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 The cognitive approach Core study 1: Andrade (doodling) Core study 2: Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes test) Core study 3: Laney et al. (false memory) Issues, debates and approaches Summary Exam-style questions 4 Learning approach 4.1 Core study 1: Bandura et al. (aggression) 4.2 Core study 2: Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) 4.3 Core study 3: Pepperberg (parrot learning) 4.4 Issues, debates and approaches Summary Exam-style questions 5 Social approach 5.1 Core study 1: Milgram (obedience) 5.2 Core study 2: Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) 5.3 Core study 3: Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping) 1 2 10 14 15 17 19 21 23 26 34 38 41 42 43 44 48 54 60 61 62 63 65 65 70 75 81 82 82 83 84 90 94 98 100 100 101 102 107 111 5.4 Issues, debates and approaches Summary Exam-style questions 116 117 117 Issues and debates at A Level 6 Psychology and abnormality 6.1 Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders 6.2 Bipolar and related disorders 6.3 Impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorder 6.4 Anxiety disorders 6.5 Obsessive compulsive and related disorders Summary Exam-style questions 119 120 130 137 143 152 158 158 159 The physical environment 160 The psychological environment 169 Consumer decision making 179 The product 189 Types of advertising and advertising techniques 199 Summary 210 Exam-style questions 210 7 Psychology of consumer behaviour 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 8 Psychology and health 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 The patient–practitioner relationship Adherence to medical advice Pain Stress Health promotion Summary Exam-style questions 9 Psychology and organisations 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Motivation to work Leadership and management Group behaviour in organisations Organisational work conditions Satisfaction at work Summary Exam-style questions Answers to self-assessment questions Answers to exam-style questions Glossary References Index Acknowledgements 211 212 226 238 248 263 272 273 274 275 283 291 297 307 315 316 317 324 332 342 352 361 iii Cambridge International AS and A level Psychology t h ve y u b n t i ki g, d i g a d f li g t y a bl d to t e muscl s. Bi l gic l r s s Y ur a sw r c uld r ge f m ‘ i g at all’ to ‘I’ve ru is h ve ev lv d b c use t y h lp us to su v am ’, ‘I’ve s t an e m’ or ‘I’ve cri d b c use I running faster we can stay safe. In order to be a c ul ’t do my h mew k’. All of t ose t i gs a e ul im ly by ev lu i , as c s of a r s s , or t e p y c ll d by y ur bi l gy. Ev n if y u w e d i g no i g, tc ls i , must be g ic lly c ll y ur b in w s ac iv , t t is a bi l gic l p c ss of el c ic l a si u i n in w ich y u w e sl i g, a d d d ch mic l sig ls al g a d b w n ne ve c lls ut jum i g out of a wi w. If y u ac u lly u s) w s h i g. T e mov me s w n y u run a y ur sl , it w uld be v y risky. How v , a sy c ll d by y ur b in a d mess g s a e s t al g t v lv d to p ct us. W n we a e d mi g a u s i si e y ur a ms a d l gs. T e d cisi s y u m k e muscl s we use f r mov me t ( c t t e sw i g e m qu s i s a e c ll d by y ur b in t. y s ar p alys. mo i l r s s s like cryi g, ev n t ugh we c c l t m, a e g v d by t e b i , al ugh h mo s e im t t. A h mone c ll d a lin w uld b Reflections: T i k of a b vi ur or an em l s d du i g t e e ci me t of a r ce a d w uld h l s se t t c uld h ve b n us ul to su Core studies – Clear outlines the studies you to run faster. Hormones are oft en involvedof in emotional ly tio of hum s. Do y u t i k it s s s t , like b i g v y h py or b i g s d or a g y. mentioned in the syllabus discussing ly) c ll d bi l gic lly, by ge s a mo s a e r l s d in p icul r si u i s. F r t e ne v us sys m themaims, methodology, outcomes and l ,a lin w uld be r l s d if y u w e ru i g How to use this book Introduction – A brief overview of each chapter to set the scene and help with navigation through the book. evaluation. Chapter 1 Research methods ambriIntroduction g I t r tio l AS an 2.1 Core study 1: Canli et al. (2000) A L v l Psy ol gy Psychology is a science, so the way psychological a diti i ar ab t f at res f th phenomena are explored is a research process. The research process (hypotheses, variables, designs and methods used to investigate questions in psychology sampling) and data and data analysis. There are also are called ‘research methods’. This chapter will help t o f rth r to i s, whi h y i la s si r withi you to how those are used by iss s a ates thical a d m th gical iss s As students, youunderstand may be bombarded withmethods ‘facts’ about psychologists to findPerhaps out about (andofanimal) geth r, th s i l h u to u rsta d a how to improve your learning. youhuman have heard cognition, emotions and behaviour. a e to e a uate a l as ts of r s ar h m th s different learning styles, or the benefits of repetition or a d to be a e to a rk ge of r s ar h mind maps to help you to revise. Each of these methods The chapter is divided into several sections, m th s to n l r s ar h sit ati s s uld h ve b n t s d to s e if t y ac u lly w k ri g th asic r s ar h m th s that y (although many haven’t!). The process of research allows d to u rsta rim ts, s f-r rts scientists such as psychologists to test ideas in order to as st ies s r ations a rr ations discover whether there is evidence to support them. This is how we decide which drugs or therapies work best for 1.1 Where do we focus when we concentrate on a problem? mental illnesses, whether different displays or music help to sell products in shops, and how we should organise work schedules to help factory workers to be efficient Reflections: Next time you see someone thinking really hard, and healthy. perhaps trying to remember a name or work out the answer To be trustworthy, research needs to be planned well to a question, watch their eyes. It has been suggested that in ambri g I t r tio l AS an A L v l Psy ol gy and conducted effectively. Imagine an investigation into such situations our eyes tend to look upwards and to the left new classroom techniques. If the researcher didn’t know (Figure 1.1). Consider how you might test whether this is true. how hard the children worked, and compared the new Would you wait for people to get confused and then look at techniques on apsychologists lazy class and a highly class, Why do domotivated research? what they do, or would you give them a puzzle to make them this would produce false results. Consider a study As students, you may be bombarded with ‘facts’ about into think? How would you decide where they are looking? What consumer psychology that compared how many how to improve your learning. Perhaps you have heardgoods of w uld y u do to be su e t t t y a ’t just l ki g a u erent learning or the benefiplaying ts of repetition werediff sold with andstyles, without music in theor store. the room for clues? Being able to decide on the answers to mind maps toonly help played you to revise. Each these methods and The researcher music at ofthe weekends questions such as these is the basis of designing experiments should have been tested to see if they actually work played no music on weekdays. Would you believe the in psychology. (although many haven’t!). The process of research allows findings of studies as these? scientists such assuch psychologists to test ideas in order to Wh s h gists do r sear h? Opening discussion – An engaging discussion to bring each chapter topic to life, encouraging students to read around the topic and sparking discussion in class. iv discover whether there is evidence to support them. This is how we decide which drugs or therapies work best for mental illnesses, whether different displays or music help to sell products in shops, and how we should organise work schedules to help factory workers to be efficient and healthy. periments An periment is an i v s ig i n w ich is l ki g f r a To be trustworthy, research needs to researcher be planned well cause-and-eff ect relationship. The investigates and conducted effectively. Imagine an investigation into e wnewy classroom one v i techniques. l , c ll dIftthee researcher i t aria , didn’t know t is responsible for the eff ect in another, the how hard the children worked, and compared the new varia. To test the researcher manipulates techniques on athis, lazy class and a highly motivated class, this would produce false results. into the independent variable (IV) toConsider producea study two or more psychology goods c consumer i i s, such as ‘ igthat ’ orcompared ‘l w’ lig how t l many v ls or ‘ ly’ were sold with and without music playing in the store. and The ‘late’ in the day. The eff ect of these conditions on the researcher only played music at the weekends and 1.1 Where do we focus when we concentrate on a problem? dependent variable (DV) is measured. For example, an IV of light level affsee ectsomeone attention, withreally people Reflections: Nextmight time you thinking hard, being better perhaps to remember name orthe work out levels the answer at trying paying attentionawhen light are high. How to a question, watch their It has been suggested well people pay eyes. attention would be thethat DV.inIf there is a big such situations our eyes tend to look upwards and to the left difference in the DV between the conditions, the researcher (Figure 1.1). Consider how you might test whether this is true. IV hasand caused theatdifference in the Wouldwould you waitconclude for people that to getthe confused then look DV, i.e. that light affect attention what they do, or would youlevels give them a puzzle to make(Figure them 1.2). think? How would you decide where they are looking? What w uld y u do to be su e t t t y a ’t just l ki g a u the room for clues? Being able to decide on the answers to questions such as these is the basis of designing experiments in psychology. Key terms – Clear and straightforward explanations of the most important terms in each topic. played no music on weekdays. Would you believe the KEY TERMS findings of studies such as these? experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected dependent variable (DV) is measured. For example, an IV of to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. periments light level might affect attention, with people being better independent variable: the factor under investigation in An periment is an i v s ig i n w ich is l ki g f r a at paying attention when the light levels are high. How an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more cause-and-effect relationship. The researcher investigates well people pay attention would be the DV. If there is a big conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for e w y one v i l , c ll d t e i t aria , difference in the DV between the conditions, the researcher changes in thefor dependent is responsible the effect variable. in another, the t would conclude that the IV has caused the difference in the dependent theresearcher factor in an experiment which is test this, the manipulates varia. Tovariable: DV, i.e. that light levels affect attention (Figure 1.2). measured and is expected toto change under themore influence of the independent variable (IV) produce two or.2 An e e ment can in est te w et er t e l ht le el the variable. c independent i i s, such as ‘ ig ’ or ‘l w’ lig t l v ls or ‘ ly’ and ‘late’ in the day. The effect of these conditions on the affects how well we concentrate K Y ERM xperiment an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. independent variable: the factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. dependent variable: the factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the independent variable..2 An e e ment can in est te w et er t e l ht le el affects how well we concentrate Canli, T., Zhao, Z., Brewer, J., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Cahill, L. (2000). Event-related activation in the human amygdala associates with later memory for individual emotional experience. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 1–5. Aim Canli et al. aimed to show that emotive images will be remembered better than those that have little emotional impact on an individual. The central questions addressed by this study were whether the amygdala is sensitive to varying degrees of emotional intensity to external stimuli and whether the level of intensity enhances memory for the stimuli. B grou B in sc i g t ch i u s a e a huge a v nce in bi l gic l Research methods – Specific aspects of sych l gy. Psych l gis s c n now s u y t e b i s o livi g p lemethods a d d w c nclusi a ut t eto r lkey i spoints i research that srelate w n b vi ur a d b in s uc u / c ivi y. T e a inwoeach chapter. b sic ty s of me ic l sc : func i l a d s uc u l. RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE Dr Splash is conducting a laboratory experiment to test whether older adults detect emotions as quickly as younger people. He has two groups of participants, older and younger ones. This is his IV. He tests them by comparing how quickly they press a button to say that they have recognised the emotion on a face of a screen. This is the DV. Each participant sits at the same distance from the screen. This is one aspect of the standardisation of the procedure. In a pilot study, Dr Splash had shown the participants pictures and used a stopwatch to time their reactions but he RE EAR himself, H ME HOD INfound PRA he was E not very consistent in his ability to stop timing exactly when the participant Dr Splash is conducting a laboratory experiment to responded. He therefore changed to the computerised test whether older adults detect emotions as quickly system to improve reliability. The pictures of faces as younger people. He has two groups of participants, included younger older ensure was older andboth younger ones.and This is hispeople IV. He to tests themitby a valid test.how quickly they press a button to say that comparing they have recognised the emotion on a face of a screen. This is the DV. Each participant sits at the same distance from the screen. This is one aspect of the stan ardisati of the procedure. In a pilot study, Dr Splash had shown the Reflparticipants ections: Look at the Research methodstointime their pictures and used a stopwatch practice box himself, above. but he found he was not very consistent reactions in his ability to stop timing exactly when the participant Defi ne the independent variable. responded. He therefore changed to the computerised system to improve r iabi it. The pictures of faces Defi ne the dependent variable. included both younger older peopledesign to ensure it was Name and explain theand experimental being va i test. uc u l sc s t ke d il d pic u s of t e s e b in w s func i l sc s a e a le to s levels in different areas of the brain. unc i l m g ic r s nce im gi g ( MRI) is u im gi g p c u e usi g MRI t ch l gy t me su s b in ac ivi y by d c i g ch g s as with blood flow. In the simplest fMRI study a par would alternate between periods of completing sk a d a c l or r st s e to me su e b s l e fMRI d a is t n a lys d to i i y b in a w ich t e sig l ch g d b w n t e ac ivi y a s e a d it is i d t t t se a s w e ac i t sk. K Y ERM olution: the process of natural selection of offsp have inherited characteristics that make them mos survive. genes: inherited instructions that are passed on fro to children that control our development and influ aspects of our thinking, behaviour and emotions, s sonality and intelligence. One way this can happ affecting brain function. Chapter 1: Resear participants are performing a task that seems in a familiar environment. School students ta university laboratory might concentrate really they are nervous or interested, which might c differences between the different light level co This means the findings from the laboratory w Chapter g era is to other settings as well1:asResear those gica a classroom. This is a problem of field experiments often have better ecologica laboratory experiments (but not always). participants are performing a task that seems Another advantage, if the School participants are un in a familiar environment. students ta that they are in an experiment, is that there m university laboratory might concentrate really fewerare demand characteristics woc they nervous or interested, than whichthere might in aerences laboratory experiment. Theselight are level any fea diff between the different co of themeans experiment that give the aims anw This the findings fromaway the laboratory participants’ to change, g era is tobehaviour other settings as wellfor asexamp those ‘make the experiment work’. of classroom. This is a problem gica a field experiments often have better ecologica Natura eriments(but not always). laboratory experiments third type of experiment is the at ra p Reflections – Short prompts for students AisAnother advantage, if the participants are un not a true experiment because the research that they are in an experiment, is that there m the levels of the IV. The difference to reflect on their own experiences and to manipulate fewer demand characteristics than there wo in the IV exist, or would occur, even in the abs in a laboratory experiment. These are any fea consider the psychological implications of those experiment. For example, children’s attention of the experiment that give away the aims an measured on very dull and very bright days, w used in this study. experiences. participants’ behaviour to change, for examp amount of light in the classroom differed (eve Suggest why the use of faces of a range of ages would ‘make the experiment work’. lights turned on). The DV could again be meas have improved validity. a class test. Natura eriments Reflections: Look at the Research methods in A third type of experiment is the at ra p practice box above. is not a true experiment because the research i eriments uDefii neg to thet independent variable. manipulate the levels of the IV. The difference R e i a at t e b gi i g of t is s c i n of t K YIV exist, ERM or would occur, even in the abs in the ect Defi thelevels, dependent variable. eff ofne light the schoolchildren could be tested experiment. For example, children’slooking attention by the explain numberthe of lights turned on in their normal altering Name and experimental design being field experiment: an investigation for measured on very dullan and very brightvariable days, w classroom. Lightstudy. level would still be the IV and the levels of relationship in which independent is used in this and isof expected beclassroom responsiblediff for ered changes amount light in to the (evein the IV could why be ‘all the lights on’ and the on’. The Suggest the use of faces of a ‘half range oflights ages would dependent variable. conducted in be the meas norm lights turned on). The ItDVis could again DV of attention could then be measured by looking at their have improved validity. for the participants for the behaviour being inve a class test. scores on a class test they were due to take that day. This is generalise: apply the findings of a study more w still an experiment because it has an IV and a DV (and there other settings and populations. will still be some controls, such as the amount of time they i eriments ological validity: the extent to which the fin spend studying for the test). However, it would be a field research in one situation would generalise to ot R u i g to t e i a at t e b gi i g of t is s c i n of t periment b c use t e chil n a e b i g t s d on a K Y isERM This influenced by whether the situation (e.g. effect of light levels, the schoolchildren could be tested usual behaviour (the topic test) in their normal environment represents the real world effectively and whethe by altering the number of lights turned on in their normal fi eld experiment: an investigation relevant to real life (has mundane r looking alism). for (the classroom). of conflict. effects on the public perception of the company. Positive and negative effects of conflict Conflict can have both positive and negative effects. Some of the positive effects of conflict have been identified by Pruitt and Rubin (2003). They suggest that it is conflict which produces change and this may be particularly true of small organisations where change can be more easily implemented than in large organisations. The resolution of conflict may also strengthen g up u i y a d c mmi me t to o g is i l g ls or t groups within the organisation (remember that the ‘storming’ phase of group formation was a necessary stage). Conflict can help to ensure that decisions are fully considered and explored and may prevent ‘risky’ decision making such as groupthink, and may produce creative and innovative suggestions. Conflict can take the form of healthy competition such as sales staff c m i g f r t e hig st s l s of t e mo h or t e y and this can have positive effects on total revenue. However, management should be cautious about using competition as a means of increasing motivation as there are several possible negative effects that need to be considered. Managing group conflict Thomas (1976) suggests five strategies that can be used to manage group conflict: Issues and debates – Areas of each topic that relate to current issues and debates in psychology are highlighted throughout each chapter, providing extra opportunities for discussion in class. Conflict can distract workers from their jobs, reducing overall productivity and can waste time, resources and money. Goals ISSUES AND DEBATES Disobedient behaviours stopping late: coming to a halt past the line on the road driving on: failing to stop when instructed to do so by the traffic warden. These categories aimed to be very je tiv. He believes that it is unlikely that the participants (the drivers) will respond to man hara t risti s as they would not know that they were n n e er ment. Finally, the drivers who stop past the line are given a note by a confederate while they are stationary. This debriefs them and asks if they would be happy to answer questions by telephone. Dr Splash’s office number is given for them to call. Self-assessment questions – Students can check their knowledge and track their progress by answering questions throughout each chapter. cooling-off period. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Reflections: Look at the Research methods in for box organisations may be to establish the level of conflict The management of conflict is obviously extremely practice above. that ensures good decision making (all aspects of the important for all organisations. Riggio offers a starting argument have been considered) and reduces the chances point in identifying that conflict may have individual or Dr Splash is concerned about the generalisability of groupthink while at the same time does not lead to the situational causes. Situational causes will be something to do with the organisation; the working conditions, salary of his breakdown of good working findings. He has relationships. two ideas for changes to the levels, expectations and so on and being able to identify Having a range of strategies for managing conflict is procedure: conducting the same test in a village the causes may help in identifying a solution. However obviously important for all organisations. When is it conflict may not be situational. It may simply be between rather than toa allow town using a female traffic warden appropriate theand individuals concerned to continue two individuals and obviously very different strategies will to fight until one of them wins and when it is appropriate in both conditions. Explain how each idea would be needed to manage this. to step in and offer some sort of compromise solution? 6 A student is designing an experiment which aims to test whether dogs are more intelligent than cats. He has three dogs and two cats which he plans to use as his sample. To find out which is most intelligent, he is going to hide their food bowl inside a box and time how long it takes the animal to get to the food. a Identify and operationalise the independent variable in this experiment. b Identify and operationalise the dependent variable in this experiment. c Write a non-directional hypothesis for this experiment. d Write a null hypothesis for this experiment. e Identify and outline the sampling technique used in this study. f Which measure of central tendency would be best to find out the average time taken to find the food? g A f i d sugg s s t t t is is n t a v y v lid t st o intelligence because it might depend on how well the animal can smell the food. Explain this criticism. However it is also useful to recognise that conflict can also be positive and organisations need to recognise the potential positive outcomes from allowing some conflict to continue. Disagreement is not conflict and one problem How to use this book Competition: persist in conflict RE EAR H MEindividuals HOD may IN PRA E until someone wins and someone loses. At this point, the Dr Splash is planning an experiment on obedience. He wants conflict is over. to test whether drivers are more will obedient to traffic wardens Accommodation: here one individual need to make a sacrifice order to reduce the conflict. This canHe be wants the test wearing whitein clothing or black clothing. extremely effective in reducing conflict and preventing to be va i , so he uses the same male traffic warden wearing urther damage to the relationship. different clothing in each condition. He has four observers, Compromise: each group or individual under conflict one watching cars compromise approaching a junction from each must make some and give up something to reduce conflict. Thisthat will bethey effective both , so he gives direction. It istheimportant areonly r ifiab lose comparable things. for the behavioural categories themsides operational definitions are Collaboration: the group has to work together to they to observe: overcome the conflict. Obedient Avoidance:behaviours avoidance involves suppressing the conflict from thevisibly conflict reducing completely. speed This does or withdrawing slowing down: not resolve the conflict which is still there and has not beenstopping: toeffective a halt in before addressed.coming This can be creatingthe a line on the road. Strategies based on collaboration or the pursuit of a improve generalisability. superordinate goal have their roots in the social psychology Theofproposed study hasand high ecological validity. prejudice and discrimination the application of this understanding Explain why. to the workplace is invaluable. Dr Splash thinks that of the observations in one of the behavioural categories, visibly reducing speed could subjective. Explain why this is likely. Splash wants to Summary – A brief summary isDrincluded atmeasure the the inter-observer reliability of his four observers. Explain why this is important. end of each chapter, providing a the clear reminder In final part of the study, some participants find methods Chapter 1: Research of the key themes discussed. out that they have been in a study. Suggest one ethical problem that could arise from this. By giving the drivers a number to call, rather than A study into sleep obtained participants by placing taking their number and calling them, Dr Splash is advertisements in shops near to the university. The Summary participants who responded were a sample of nine giving the participants theirThis right. Why issampling from the population. canto bewithdr done by opportunity Psychologists can use several different research methods; females and one male and were mainly retired people. (choosing people who are available), random sampling experiments (laboratory, field and natural), self-reports this important? The study was testing a new way to help people to fall (selecting participants so that each individual has an equal (questionnaires and interviews), case studies (detailed Dr Splash asks the participants who do call him chance of being chosen) or volunteer (self-selecting) sampling investigations of a single instance, e.g. one person), asleep, using a recording of bubbling stream. Half the why they stopped and why they over the (inviting participants, e.g. bystopped advertising). observations and correlations. participants were told it would help them to sleep, the line. He asks two of his colleagues to interpret the Studies can collect different types of data. Quantitative data is In experiments there is an independent variable (IV), which others were told it would keep them awake. Exam-style questions – Students can use numerical and qualitative data is descriptive. Data analysis of is manipulated, changed or (in natural experiments) usedasons to they give but wants to ensure that they have a Identify and outline the sampling technique used quantitative data includes using various measures of central create different conditions and a measured dependent variable high inter-rater reliability. He gives them a list of in this study. tendency (the mean, median and mode) and measures of (DV). By imposing controls, the experimenter can be more the questions at the end of each chapter to Explain possible problem with spread (the rangeincluding and standard Data can be possible interpretations a deviation). numerical scale certain that changes in the IV are the cause of changes in the displayed graphically using bar charts, histograms or scatter DV. There are three experimental designs. In an independent generalisability in this study. check their knowledge and understanding to indicate how strongly the participant felt they graphs. measures design there are different participants in each level Describe e ic l issue t t would a ise in t is may be punished. As both colleagues interpreted the of the IV, in a repeated measures design the same participants of the whole topic and to practise answering The normal distribution is a pattern which can be seen on a study. are used in all levels of the IV and in a matched pairs design the responses from all the available drivers, frequency histogram which shows thatDr theSplash results have an even How well the participants slept was measured participants are paired up with one member of each pair in each (symmetrical) spread around the mean, median and mode. can c elate the sc e given to each driver by the questions similar level of the IV. In a repeated measures design counterbalancing in two ways, by self-report and byto howthose many they will encounter two colleagues to see if they are similar. What hetio l AS an A L v lminutes Research in psychology raises ethical issues. helps to overcome order effects (fatigue and practice effects) they asleep for. Which of these ambri g Some Ican t rimportant Psy in ol their gy stayed exams. issues relate to informed consent (knowing about the study and in an independent measures design random allocation conclude if this produces a strong positive correlation? measures is more reliable and why? A-level_Psychology_Ch09.indd 290 helps to overcome the effects of individual differences. In experiments it is important to control variables to raise validity. The most important are xtraneous variables which could have a confounding effect. If these are left as uncontrolled variables they can alter the apparent effect of the IV on the DV. Variables can be described as articipant variables (due to differences between individuals or between the same individual at different times) or situational variables (due to differences in physical setting or the social situation). In self-reports, different question types can be used, including open questions (producing qualitative data) and closed questions (producing quantitative data). An interview can be structur (fixed), unstructur (variable) or semistructur. Observations can be conducted in many different ways, for example structur (observing known categories) or unstructur (recording any events) and naturalistic (observing whatever is happening) or ontrolled (constructing events to observe). The role of the observer may be obvious to the participants (overt) or hidden ( overt) and the observer themselves may be part of the social situations ( articipant) or not (non-participant). Correlations look for relationships between two measured variables. They can be sitiv (the two variables increase together) or gativ (as one variable effortless, uses associations and resemblances and is nonincreases the other decreases) but conclusions cannot be statistical, gullible and heuristic. System 2 is very different, drawn about causal relationships between the variables. All it is conscious, slow, controlled, deliberate, effortful, variables, e.g. those in correlations, the IV and DV in experiments s is ic l, categories sus ici usinaobservations d cos ly to should us. all be and behavioural operationalised. Kahneman and Tversky (1979) have done a great deal of 30/05/16 2:20 PM and agreeing to do it), protection of participants (physically and sychologically), the right to withdr (being able to leave a study), eption (being misled), confidentiality (keeping participants’ data anonymous), priv y (not invading physical or mental space) and debriefing (explaining the study to participants afterwards and returning them to their previous state). There are also ethical guidelines relating to the use of 1 A hypothesis in a study says ‘Greater emotions will be experienced after an adrenalin animals, including issues relating to the species used, number of injection than after a saline injection’. animals, the pain and distress they experience, the way the e housed and rewarded or deprived and their suffering (the need a Is this a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis or a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis? for anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia). Include a reason for your answer. [1 mark] Exam-style questions Two very important methodological issues e validity and b Write a null hypothesis that could be used with the hypothesis given above. [2 marks] reliability. Ecological validity relates to how well the findings from one situation, e.g. a laboratory, represent what would 2 Declan is conducting a self-report study about attitudes to people with phobias. He cannot happen in other situations. Subjectivity threatens validity decide whether to use a questionnaire or an interview. because it causes researchers to interpret findings from their a Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of using a questionnaire for Declan’s personal viewpoint, whereas objectivity allows researchers study. [4 marks] to measure variables in ways that are independent of their own perspective. Demand characteristics alsoc threaten t r 7: Psy l gy of sum r b bviWrite ur one open and one closed question that Declan could ask. [2 marks] validity because they inform participants about the aim of the study which can alter their behaviour. Results of c Declan is concerned that his interpretation of the responses to questions might not be studies should be generalisable, that is they should apply to consistent. Is this mainly a reliability or a validity issue? Explain your answer. [2 marks] other people, situations and times. eliability refers to the m n (2011) also discuss s t e r le of h u is3ics Mary is planning an experiment to find out whether boys or girls in her school doodle more. consistency of measures. In an experiment it is important ule of t umb t i ki g) a d bi s s in our t i ki g. One o to use standardisation of procedures to ensure that all marks e e aremtreated l s givin the n insame t e away. icleThis illusraises reliability. s t e w y t a Describe how Mary could conduct her experiment. participants irrelevant material candata influence our answers. When researchers interpreting are consistent, they have Identify possible weakness / limitation with the procedure you have described good inter-rater reliability (e.g. to practice of operational Kahneman calls this thedue anchoring heuristic. Imagine a in your answer to part (a) and suggest how your study might be done differently to definitions). Inter-observer reliability is the consistency in the problem. marks wheel of fortune marked from 0 to 100. It has been rigg dovercome by researchbegins into the System 1into thinking, Any research withconsequences an aim, which isof developed a the records made by observers who are watching the same testable hypothesis. Thisiscan directional (one-tailed) non-of the the experimenters to stop at either number 10 or number 65. which they claim thebe way most people think, or most events. The reliability of a test, e.g. a questionnaire or a task in directional (tw does -tailed). is compared to a incapable null hypothesis, When itcan stops, students are asked to write down the num time. This notThis mean that we are of System an experiment be evaluated using a procedure to measure which2 proposes therewe is no difference or relationship (orbe why which it stops they are then two questi s: thought that but that use this rarely and this may test–r at test reliability, by and conducting the testasked twice and that any pattern inof the results has arisenare dueso todifficult chance).to Toget testright. predictions decision making correlating the two sets of data. Is the percentage of African nations in the United Nations the hypothesis, a group of participants (the sample) is selected Extension – Material that goes beyond the syllabus and encourages broader understanding of a topic, discussion and engagement. One of their best known experiments asked Americans to respond to this statement: ‘Steve is very shy and withdrawn, invariably helpful but with very little interest in people or in the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and structure, and a passion for detail.’ Is Steve more likely to be a librarian or a farmer? Not surprisingly, most Americans respond that Steve is more likely to be a librarian than a farmer. Steve sounds more like a librarian than a farmer. We do not consider the fact that there are at least five times as many farmers in the USA as there are librarians and that male librarians are even rarer than female librarians. From this statistical ys m 2) a ch it is su ly much m e lik ly t ve is a f me. How v , t is is Sys m 2 t i ki g a we us t is r ly. In a r e m le p ici s a e ask d to es im e t l num r of mu s in D it in a y r w ile o sa sk d to es im e t e t l num r of mu s in Michig larger or smaller than the number you just wrote down? What is your best guess of the percentage of Afric nations in the United Nations? Remember that the number the student has just w i n down has absolutely nothing to do with the questi s that have been asked. Despite this, students who s w t e wheel stop at 10 gave an average guess for the sec d question of 25%. Those who saw the wheel stop at 65 gave an average guess of 45%. There are many stu i s like this which show how the first question (and the irrelevant material) anchors the answer to the second questi. Kahneman describes this as an extreme example of System 1 thinking – planting a number in someone’s head m k s it r l v t to d cisi s. A r c g y of h u is ic is t e r s iv ss u is ic. T e f ll wi g t sk d scri d by K m illus s t is. P ici s a e ask d to r d t e f ll wi g sc i i : v Issues and debates at AS Level Psychology can be defined as ‘the science of mind and behaviour’. The topics explored in psychology include ways to understand, explain and predict the behaviour, thinking and emotions of humans and animals. Two of the key concepts on the syllabus describe the breadth of psychology as a subject. Most topics in psychology can be explored from a number of different approaches (e.g. biological, cognitive, learning and social). This means that explanations or theories used to understand a topic could be based on one of several different perspectives. The range of core studies illustrates a variety of approaches, and each approach has strengths and weaknesses. There are therefore debates both within and between approaches. However, the different approaches should not necessarily be seen as being in competition, but as alternative ways of thinking about and explaining topics, ideas or observations. These topics are the content of psychology and include ways to understand the behaviour, thinking and emotions of humans and animals. vi In addition to debates based on the approaches, psychologists have a range of research methods they can use to test their explanations or theories and these also have strengths and weaknesses. The alternative methods can therefore be considered in terms of their relative usefulness and limitations. In particular, the role of ethics and the use of children and animals are issues that should be considered in the discussion of methods. Another difference between methods relates to the type of data they collect and whether it is numerical (quantitative) or descriptive (qualitative). For all psychological investigations, both those you learn about and those you design yourself, it is important to consider how well the research could be or has been done. In addition to ethics, two other key ideas here are validity (whether the research is really testing what it claims to) and reliability (the consistency of the measures used). Psychological research and explanations aim to improve our understanding. Research which helps us to understand psychological phenomena may or may not have practical applications to everyday life. The extent to which the findings of research, or psychological theories, can be effectively applied to day-to-day problems is another important debate. Finally, there are two specific debates you need to understand at AS Level. One is the nature versus nurture argument. This is about whether behaviour, feelings or thinking processes could result from nature (innate, genetic factors) or from nurture (can be explained in terms of the environmental influences). Again, these two sides of the debate are not necessarily in opposition. Contemporary psychology considers the relative contributions of each influence. The second debate is about the relative importance of individual versus situational influences in explanations. This means the role played by factors such as the person’s personality or physiology that are unique to them (individual) and by factors in the setting, such as the people or the place (situational). Again, such factors may be present simultaneously and may interact, rather than being the influences working in isolation in a way which would be ‘one or the other’. 1 Chapter 1 Research methods Introduction Psychology is a science, so the way psychological phenomena are explored is a research process. The methods used to investigate questions in psychology are called ‘research methods’. This chapter will help you to understand how those methods are used by psychologists to find out about human (and animal) cognition, emotions and behaviour. The chapter is divided into several sections, covering the basic research methods that you need to understand: experiments, self-reports, case studies, observations and correlations. In addition, you will learn about features of the research process (hypotheses, variables, designs and sampling) and data and data analysis. There are also two further topics, which you will also consider within issues and debates: ethical and methodological issues. Together, these will help you to understand and be able to evaluate all aspects of research methods and to be able to apply your knowledge of research methods to novel research situations. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Why do psychologists do research? As students, you may be bombarded with ‘facts’ about how to improve your learning. Perhaps you have heard of different learning styles, or the benefits of repetition or mind maps to help you to revise. Each of these methods should have been tested to see if they actually work (although many haven’t!). The process of research allows scientists such as psychologists to test ideas in order to discover whether there is evidence to support them. This is how we decide which drugs or therapies work best for mental illnesses, whether different displays or music help to sell products in shops, and how we should organise work schedules to help factory workers to be efficient and healthy. 2 To be trustworthy, research needs to be planned well and conducted effectively. Imagine an investigation into new classroom techniques. If the researcher didn’t know how hard the children worked, and compared the new techniques on a lazy class and a highly motivated class, this would produce false results. Consider a study into consumer psychology that compared how many goods were sold with and without music playing in the store. The researcher only played music at the weekends and played no music on weekdays. Would you believe the findings of studies such as these? 1.1 Experiments An experiment is an investigation which is looking for a cause-and-effect relationship. The researcher investigates the way one variable, called the independent variable, is responsible for the effect in another, the dependent variable. To test this, the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) to produce two or more conditions, such as ‘high’ or ‘low’ light levels or ‘early’ and ‘late’ in the day. The effect of these conditions on the 1.1 Where do we focus when we concentrate on a problem? Reflections: Next time you see someone thinking really hard, perhaps trying to remember a name or work out the answer to a question, watch their eyes. It has been suggested that in such situations our eyes tend to look upwards and to the left (Figure 1.1). Consider how you might test whether this is true. Would you wait for people to get confused and then look at what they do, or would you give them a puzzle to make them think? How would you decide where they are looking? What would you do to be sure that they aren’t just looking around the room for clues? Being able to decide on the answers to questions such as these is the basis of designing experiments in psychology. dependent variable (DV) is measured. For example, an IV of light level might affect attention, with people being better at paying attention when the light levels are high. How well people pay attention would be the DV. If there is a big difference in the DV between the conditions, the researcher would conclude that the IV has caused the difference in the DV, i.e. that light levels affect attention (Figure 1.2). KEY TERMS experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. independent variable: the factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. dependent variable: the factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the independent variable. 1.2 An experiment can investigate whether the light level affects how well we concentrate Chapter 1: Research methods In order to be more certain that the difference between the conditions is caused by the IV, the researcher needs to control any other variables that might affect the DV. For example, people might find it harder to be attentive if they have eaten, exercised or sat through a very dull class. Such extraneous variables should therefore be controlled, i.e. kept the same in each condition (or ‘level of the IV’). The levels of the IV being compared may be two or more experimental conditions (such as bright and dull artificial lights) or there may be one or more experimental conditions which are compared to a control condition (for example, artificial light compared to daylight). The control condition is simply the absence of the experimental variable. For example, in a comparison of the effect of eating chocolate on paying attention, we might compare either the effect of eating one bar or two bars (two experimental conditions) or the effect of eating one bar to no chocolate at all (one experimental and one control condition). KEY TERMS extraneous variable: a variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV or systematically, i.e. on one level of the IV (called a confounding variable) so can obscure the effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret. experimental condition: one or more of the situations in an experiment which represent different levels of the IV and are compared (or compared to a control condition). control condition: a level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent. It is compared to one or more experimental conditions. laboratory experiment: a research method in which there is an IV, a DV and strict controls. It looks for a causal relationship and is conducted in a setting that is not in the usual environment for the participants with regard to the behaviour they are performing. RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE A researcher might conduct a laboratory experiment to test the effect of the independent variable of time of day on the dependent variable of happiness of students. They might choose to control extraneous variables such as which lessons the students were in and whether they had recently eaten since these might affect happiness too. This would be a comparison between two experimental conditions. Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box. Can you suggest: two different times of day to use as the levels of the independent variable how the dependent variable might be measured one other extraneous variable that it would be important to control? Experimental design The way that participants are used in different levels of the IV is called the experimental design. They may be allocated to all, or only one, of the levels of the IV. The three experimental designs are: independent measures design repeated measures design matched pairs design. Independent measures design In an independent measures design, a separate group of participants is used for each experimental condition or level of the IV. This means that the data for each level of the IV is ‘independent’ because it is not related to any other data – it has come from different people. Note that this is a different use of the word ‘independent’ from that in the ‘independent variable’. If we wanted to know whether seeing aggressive models on television had long-term effects, we could (rather unethically) expose a group of young people to aggressive television and then wait for them to grow older. However, it would much quicker to compare two groups of adults, one group who had been allowed to watch aggressive TV as children and one group who had not been allowed to. This second example would be an independent measures design. This design is good because the participants only encounter the experimental setting once. They are therefore unlikely KEY TERMS experimental design: the way in which participants are allocated to levels of the IV. independent measures design: an experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each level of the IV (condition). 3 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology to notice or respond to clues that might tell them the aims of the experiment (demand characteristics). One problem is that there might be individual differences between participants that could influence the findings. For example, in a study on the effect of noise on dreams, all the people who normally remember their dreams well might end up in the ‘no noise’ group. If so, it might look as though noise prevented dream recall when in fact it had little effect. This risk can be reduced by the random allocation of participants to different conditions. This spreads possible differences between individuals across the levels of the IV. To randomly allocate participants, each person is given a number, and the numbers are then randomly divided into two groups. This can be done by telling each participant a number, putting numbers into a hat and drawing out two sets, or using a random number generator (e.g. on a computer) to do the same thing. 4 Repeated measures design In a repeated measures design the same group of people participate in every level of the IV. To help you to remember, think of the participants ‘repeating’ their performance under different conditions. For example, in a study looking at the effects of doodling on learning, we could count the number of words recalled in the same group of people when they did doodle and when they did not. The main advantage of a repeated measures design is that each person acts as their own baseline. Any differences between participants that could influence their performance and therefore the DV will affect both levels of the IV in the same way. Individual differences are therefore unlikely to bias the findings. Imagine that in our experiment on doodling, one person was generally very quick to learn and another quite slow. In an independent measures design this might cause a problem if they were in different groups, but using a repeated measures design makes the differences between them less important, as both could show an improvement with doodling. Individual differences between participants are called participant variables. These variables, such as age, gender, personality or intelligence, can affect scores on the DV. It is therefore important to make sure that these variables do not hide, or exaggerate, differences between levels of the IV. As each individual participates in every level of the IV they will perform the same or similar tasks two or more times. This can lead to a problem called the order effect. Repeated performance could cause participants to improve because they have encountered the task before – a practice effect. This matters because participants who were tested on a condition second would perform better than those who did it first. Alternatively, repetition might make performance worse, perhaps if they were bored or tired – a fatigue effect. In addition, the participants see both levels of the IV and have more opportunity to work out what is being tested, so are more likely to respond to demand characteristics. Order effects can be solved in two ways: by randomisation or counterbalancing. Imagine an experiment with two conditions: learning while listening to music (M) and learning with no music (N). In randomisation, participants are randomly allocated to do either condition M followed by N, or vice versa. As some will do each order, any advantage of doing one of the conditions first will probably be evened out in the results. To be more certain that possible effects are evened out, counterbalancing can be used. Here, the group of participants is divided into two and one half will KEY TERMS demand characteristics: features of the experimental situation which give away the aims. They can cause participants to try to change their behaviour, e.g. to match their beliefs about what is supposed to happen, which reduces the validity of the study. random allocation: a way to reduce the effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. Participants are put in each level of the IV such that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition. repeated measures design: an experimental design in which each participant performs in every level of the IV. participant variables: individual differences between participants (such as age, personality and intelligence) that could affect their behaviour in a study. They could hide or exaggerate differences between levels of the IV. order effects: practice and fatigue effects are the consequences of participating in a study more than once, e.g. in a repeated measures design. They cause changes in performance between conditions that are not due to the IV, so can obscure the effect on the DV. practice effect: a situation where participants’ performance improves because they experience the experimental task more than once, e.g. due to familiarity or learning the task. fatigue effect: a situation where participants’ performance declines because they have experienced an experimental task more than once, e.g. due to boredom or tiredness. randomisation: counterbalancing: counterbalancing is used to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design. Each possible order of levels of the IV is performed by a different sub-group of participants. This can be described as an ABBA design, as half the participants do condition A then B, and half do B then A. Chapter 1: Research methods do M followed by N, the other half N followed by M. If on the second test there was a risk of participants accidentally including items learned in the first test, this would be a problem for exactly half the participants in the ‘music’ condition, and exactly half in the ‘no music’ condition. Alternatively, a different design could be used. matched pairs as they are both genetically the same and are likely to have had very similar experiences. Different groups of participants are then used for each level of the IV, with one participant from each pair being in each level of the IV. By using different participants in each group order effects are avoided and the matching of participants minimises the influence of individual differences. The problems associated with both independent measures and repeated measures designs are overcome in a matched pairs design. Participants are matched into pairs who are similar in ways that are important to the experiment, such as age, gender, intelligence or personality (Figure 1.3). This matching is done on variables relevant to the study, so in a study on the effects of playing a violent computer game, participants might be matched on their existing level of aggression. Identical twins make ideal KEY TERM matched pairs design: an experimental design in which participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV. 1.3 Identical twins are perfect participants for a matched pairs design 5 Experimental design Strengths Independent measures Repeated measures Different participants are used in each level of the IV so there are no order effects Participant variables are unlikely to distort the effect of the IV, as each participant does all levels Participants see only one level of the IV, reducing the effect of demand characteristics Participants see only one level of the IV, reducing the effect of demand characteristics Counterbalancing reduces order effec ts Participant variables are less likely to distort the effect of the IV than in an independent measures design as individual differences are matched Random allocation to levels of the IV can reduce the effects of individual differences Weaknesses Participant variables can distort results if there are important individual differences between participants in different levels of the IV More participants are needed than in a repeated measures design so the study may be less ethical if participants are harmed and less effective if there is a small sample because participants are hard to find Uses fewer participants than repeated measures so is good when participants are hard to find or if participants are at risk Order effect could distort the results As participants see the experimental task more than once, they have greater exposure to demand characteristics Table 1.1 Strengths and weaknesses of experimental designs Matched pairs No order effects The similarity between pairs is limited by the matching process, so the right matching criteria must be chosen in advance for this to be effective Availability of matching pairs may be limited, making the sample size small (although some studies conducted on twins use very large numbers of pairs) Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE A child psychologist conducted an experiment to look at the effect of violent computer games (Figure 1.4). There were two experimental conditions (violent and non-violent). The dependent variable was the children’s subsequent violent behaviour. The experimental design chosen was an independent measures design, with different children in each of the experimental conditions. If a repeated measures design had been used, in which the same children played each type of game, there could be order effects. For example, aggression caused by playing the violent game could still affect children in the non-violent game condition if they did this second. If this were the case, the problem could be reduced by using counterbalancing. Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box. Think about the following: It would be a good idea to have another level of the IV that did not use a computer game but did use a computer, such as looking at non-violent pictures. Would this be a control condition or another experimental condition? One potential order effect that could arise if a repeated measures design was used for this experiment is that the children might get fed up with playing computer games by the second condition. Is this a practice effect or a fatigue effect? Suggest a participant variable other than initial level of violence that could affect the results of this study. Types of experiments 6 1.4 Are children more violent after they have played a violent computer game than before? However, the use of an independent measures design risks participant variables, such as the original level of violence of each child, affecting the results. This could be reduced by either using random allocation of participants to each condition or by using a matched pairs design. In this case, children with similar aggression levels would be put in the different conditions. To avoid demand characteristics, the children would ideally be unaware that they are in an experiment, perhaps by telling them that they are in a computer games competition. KEY TERMS standardisation: keeping the procedure for each participant in an experiment (or interview) exactly the same to ensure that any differences between participants or conditions are due to the variables under investigation rather than differences in the way they were treated. reliability: the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example that it would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion. Laboratory experiments Many experiments in psychology are conducted in artificial surroundings, such as a laboratory. Experiments conducted in this way are called laboratory experiments; the participants are not in their usual environment for the behaviour they are performing, and there are strict controls over the situation. For example, a laboratory experiment on the attention of schoolchildren in high and low light levels could be conducted. It might be investigated by testing the children on a computerised attention task conducted in a psychology room in a university. Evaluating laboratory experiments Laboratory experiments use many controls. In addition, researchers in laboratory experiments can use standardisation, which means that the procedure for each participant can be kept exactly the same. Both controls and standardisation help to make the findings of the experiment reliable, that is the researchers would be more certain that the procedures and measures they are using are consistent. Controlling variables also improves validity – how certain the researcher can be that they are testing what they claim to be testing. By keeping the situation the same, the researcher can be more certain that any differences in the DV really are due to the differences between levels of the IV rather than due to any extraneous variables. KEY TERM validity: the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing. Chapter 1: Research methods RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE Dr Splash is conducting a laboratory experiment to test whether older adults detect emotions as quickly as younger people. He has two groups of participants, older and younger ones. This is his IV. He tests them by comparing how quickly they press a button to say that they have recognised the emotion on a face of a screen. This is the DV. Each participant sits at the same distance from the screen. This is one aspect of the standardisation of the procedure. In a pilot study, Dr Splash had shown the participants pictures and used a stopwatch to time their reactions himself, but he found he was not very consistent in his ability to stop timing exactly when the participant responded. He therefore changed to the computerised system to improve reliability. The pictures of faces included both younger and older people to ensure it was a valid test. Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box above. Define the independent variable. Define the dependent variable. Name and explain the experimental design being used in this study. Suggest why the use of faces of a range of ages would have improved validity. Field experiments Returning to the idea at the beginning of this section of the effect of light levels, the schoolchildren could be tested by altering the number of lights turned on in their normal classroom. Light level would still be the IV and the levels of the IV could be ‘all the lights on’ and ‘half the lights on’. The DV of attention could then be measured by looking at their scores on a class test they were due to take that day. This is still an experiment because it has an IV and a DV (and there will still be some controls, such as the amount of time they spend studying for the test). However, it would be a field experiment because the children are being tested on a usual behaviour (the topic test) in their normal environment (the classroom). Evaluating field experiments It is a little harder to control variables and standardise procedures in a field experiment than a laboratory experiment. Reliability and validity may therefore be lower. However, validity might be improved because the participants are performing a task that seems normal in a familiar environment. School students taken into a university laboratory might concentrate really hard because they are nervous or interested, which might cover up any differences between the different light level conditions. This means the findings from the laboratory would not generalise to other settings as well as those from the classroom. This is a problem of ecological validity, and field experiments often have better ecological validity than laboratory experiments (but not always). Another advantage, if the participants are unaware that they are in an experiment, is that there may be fewer demand characteristics than there would be in a laboratory experiment. These are any features of the experiment that give away the aims and cause participants’ behaviour to change, for example to try to ‘make the experiment work’. Natural experiments A third type of experiment is the natural experiment. This is not a true experiment because the researcher cannot manipulate the levels of the IV. The differences or changes in the IV exist, or would occur, even in the absence of the experiment. For example, children’s attention could be measured on very dull and very bright days, when the amount of light in the classroom differed (even with the lights turned on). The DV could again be measured with a class test. KEY TERMS field experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. It is conducted in the normal environment for the participants for the behaviour being investigated. generalise: apply the findings of a study more widely, e.g. to other settings and populations. ecological validity: the extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation (e.g. a laboratory) represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life (has mundane realism). natural experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the independent variable cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter. Instead they study the effect of an existing difference or change. Since the researcher cannot manipulate the levels of the IV it is not a true experiment. 7 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology familiarity of the task and setting, which would increase ecological validity. Evaluating natural experiments Using this method there is less opportunity to control and standardise the situation. There may be uncontrolled variables, such as how warm the classroom is. It might be much warmer on sunny days for example. This could matter because the warmth might make the children sleepy and less able to concentrate. This would lower the validity of the findings, although this is countered by the KEY TERM uncontrolled variable: a confounding variable that may not have been identified and eliminated in an experiment, which can confuse the results. It may be a feature of the participants or the situation. Types of experiment Laboratory experiment Strengths Good control of extraneous variables, raising validity Causal relationships can be determined Standardised procedures raise reliability and allow replication 8 Field experiment As participants are in their normal situation for the activity being studied they are likely to behave naturally, making the results representative If participants are unaware that they are in a study, the problem of demand characteristics is less than in laboratory experiments Natural experiment They can be used to study realworld issues If participants are in their normal situation, their behaviour is likely to be representative If participants are unaware that they are in a study, demand characteristics will be less problematic They enable researchers to investigate variables that it would not be practical or ethical to manipulate Weaknesses The artificial situation could make participants’ behaviour unrepresentative Participants could respond to demand characteristics and alter their behaviour Control of extraneous variables is harder than in laboratory experiments, lowering reliability and making replication difficult The researcher will be less sure that changes in the DV have been caused by changes in the IV than in a laboratory experiment Participants may be unaware that they are in a study, raising ethical issues Table 1.2 Strengths and weaknesses of experimental methods They are possible only when differences arise naturally Control over extraneous variables is often very difficult As the researcher is not manipulating the IV, they will be less sure of the cause of changes in the DV, so a causal relationship cannot necessarily be established They are often hard to replicate, as controls and standardisation are hard to implement, so the reliability may be low Chapter 1: Research methods RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE A research team is deciding how to test the effect of watching television on children’s pro-social behaviour, that is, how nice children are to each other. They will measure pro-social behaviour by observing how often the children hold hands. They are considering two methods. One is a field experiment, in which parents either do or do not allow their child to watch television. Alternatively, they could observe the children in a remote place that has no television and then observe them again after the area has begun to receive satellite transmissions. This would be a natural experiment. Both of these studies would have more ecological validity than a laboratory experiment in which children were shown additional television, because in a laboratory the children would in an unfamiliar environment so may not pay attention to the television if they were nervous or distracted. In both situations there may be uncontrolled variables, such as which exact programmes were watched, and for how long. These factors could affect later pro-social behaviour. If the children are aware that their television viewing is being manipulated (in the field experiment) or their pro-social behaviour is being observed (in either experiment) they may try to alter their behaviour to meet the research team’s expectations, for example being extra nice to each other (or especially nasty!). Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box above. Which of the following can you identify? Independent variable Dependent variable. Is there a control condition? Can you suggest one extraneous variable that it would be important to control? What effect might demand characteristics have in this study? Suggest one strength and one weakness of conducting the study as a natural experiment in terms of generalisability. Ethics in experiments The role of ethics in psychology is discussed in detail in Section 1.10. Here we will briefly consider ethics in experiments (Figure 1.5). A participant in a laboratory experiment is likely to know that they are participating in a study and can readily be asked for their informed consent. However, it may be necessary to deceive them in order to avoid them working out the aim of the study and altering their behaviour, i.e. to reduce demand characteristics. There is therefore a balance between good ethics and good science. In field and natural experiments, in contrast, it may not be possible to gain consent as the participants may be unaware that they are even in a study. This is an ethical problem because participants should have the right to know what they are entering into and to agree to participate or not. They should also have the right to withdraw, which they cannot do if they do not even know that they are in a study, and they should be protected from possible harm. Ethics Science 1.5 Researchers must achieve a balance between good ethics and good science In all experiments, privacy and confidentiality are important. Privacy can be respected in laboratory experiments because the tests or questions used are pre-planned. In the natural settings of field and natural experiments, however, there is a risk of invading privacy so researchers must be more careful of this. Confidentiality can be respected in all experiments by keeping the participants’ data secure and anonymous, although if the participants are unaware that data has been collected, as in a field experiment, it is important to ensure that they cannot be individually identified, for example by their place of work. KEY TERMS informed consent: knowing enough about a study to decide whether you want to agree to participate. right to withdraw: a participant should know that they can remove themselves, and their data, from the study at any time. privacy: participants’ emotions and physical space should not be invaded, for example they should not be observed in situations or places where they would not expect to be seen. confidentiality: participants’ results and personal information should be kept safely and not released to anyone outside the study. 9 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE A psychology department ethical committee is looking at a research proposal for a study about the effect of cognitions on a therapy designed to help people to relax. The researchers only plan to ask for consent about the procedure they will use – listening to an imagerybased relaxation tape – and not their aim. They intend to deceive the participants about the independent variable, which will be either to tell them what will really happen – their pulse rate should fall – or to give them false information by telling them that some people see disturbing flashing lights. When the participants are given the limited information at the start of the study, they will also be told that they can leave at any time, giving them the right to withdraw. The instructions on the tape tell the participants to imagine relaxing, intimate thoughts. However, they will also be told that they will not be asked about these thoughts, which ensures their privacy is protected. When the participants join the study, each will be given a number, which will be used to identify their data so that their names do not have to be used, ensuring their confidentiality. 1 Barry and Anouk are deciding how to test whether gender affects artistic ability. Barry suggests doing a study in the psychology department where they ask students to come in for a study about memory in which they must redraw a complicated image. Barry and Anouk can then see how well they do it. Anouk thinks it would be better to persuade the art teacher to use an art class and set a lesson where students have to copy the same complicated image. a Explain the type of experiment that is being suggested: i by Barry ii by Anouk. b The independent variable is the same in Barry and Anouk’s studies, as is the dependent variable. i Describe the independent variable (IV). ii Describe the dependent variable (DV). c Explain one ethical issue that is clear from the procedure they have suggested. d Suggest one other ethical issue and how they could avoid problems with this issue. 10 Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box above. Which of the following can you identify? The type of experiment being planned The independent variable The dependent variable The experimental design Can you suggest one way in which possible harm to participants could arise as a result of this study? Suggest why participants may want to withdraw from the study. Why might it be necessary for the researchers to deceive the participants? Applying your knowledge of experiments to novel research situations You should be able to recognise experiments (including the IV and DV – and be able to operationalise them, i.e. define them in detail) to decide whether an experiment is a laboratory, field or natural experiment and to comment on controls, standardisation, ethics and reliability and validity. In addition, you should be able to plan an experiment, deciding on an IV and a DV, the type of experiment and how to implement suitable controls and to avoid ethical issues. 1.2 Self-reports In a self-report, the participant gives the researcher information about themselves directly. This is different from experimental tests or observations where the researcher finds the data out from the participant. There are two techniques, questionnaires and interviews, both of which ask the participant questions. Questionnaires In a questionnaire, the questions are presented to the participant in written form. This may be on paper or as an online survey. There are several different types of questions. The two most important are closed questions, which have KEY TERMS self-report: a research method, such as a questionnaire or interview, which obtains data by asking participants to provide information about themselves. questionnaire: a research method that uses written questions. closed questions: questionnaire, interview or test items that produce quantitative data. They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers. Chapter 1: Research methods a fixed set of possible responses, and open questions, which ask for descriptive answers in the participant’s own words. Closed questions can take the form of simple choices, such as those asking for yes/no answers or items from a list. Other forms of closed questions include rating scales (where a number is chosen, e.g. between 0 and 5) and Likert scales, which ask the respondent to say how much they agree with a statement such as ‘Obesity is not important’ or ‘Exercise is a necessity’ using the choices ‘strongly agree / agree / don’t know / disagree / strongly disagree’. Some examples of closed questions are as follows: What is your gender: male or female? How do you travel to school? walk / bicycle / bus / train / car Indicate which animal(s) scare you: dog, spider, cat, rat, fish, rabbit, bird. [You may tick as many as you like] How much do you like psychology on a scale of 0–4? (0 = not at all, 4 = very much) Open questions prompt the respondent to give detailed answers, which may be quite long. They contain more depth than the answers to closed questions and are more likely to be able to explore the reasons behind behaviours, emotions or reasoning. They typically ask ‘Why…’ or simply ‘Describe…’. Some examples of open questions are as follows: Evaluating questionnaires Questionnaires using mainly closed questions are easier to analyse than interviews (using more open questions) as they can be used to produce totals of each category of answers so making it simple to summarise the findings. It is also possible to work out averages, which can help to describe the patterns in the results. Where qualitative data is gathered from questionnaires, it produces more detailed, in-depth information. This is an advantage, although it also leads to a problem. Answers to open questions have to be interpreted, and this can lead to a lack of reliability as the researcher may not be consistent in their interpretation. If more than one researcher is involved, there may also be differences between them. This would be a lack of inter-rater reliability. One problem with questionnaires is that it is easy for participants to ignore them, which means the return rate may be very low. Importantly, the people who do reply to a questionnaire may all be quite similar, for example have time to spend because they are unemployed or retired. This would mean all the people who filled out the questionnaire would be quite similar. 11 What do you think about children having access to the internet? Why do you believe it is important to help people who suffer from phobias? How would you suggest parents should discipline their children? When do you feel it is important to allow young people the freedom to control their own TV viewing? Describe your views on the use of social media sites with regard to encouraging helping behaviour. Explain how you would respond if you were told to hurt another person. KEY TERMS open questions: questionnaire, interview or test items that produce qualitative data. Participants give full and detailed answers in their own words, i.e. no categories or choices are given. inter-rater reliability: the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses in a questionnaire (or interview) will produce the same records from the same raw data. social desirability bias: trying to present oneself in the best light by determining what a test is asking. filler questions: items put into a questionnaire, interview or test to disguise the aim of the study by hiding the important questions among irrelevant ones so that participants are less likely to alter their behaviour by working out the aims. 1.6 People may lie in questionnaires, lowering validity, for example giving socially desirable responses to questionnaires about eating habits Another problem with questionnaires is that participants may lie. They may do this because they want to look more acceptable; this is called a social desirability bias (Figure 1.6). Participants may also lie if they believe they have worked out the aim of the study. To avoid this, researchers sometimes include filler questions among the real questions. The answers to filler questions are not analysed in the research since they serve only to hide the real purpose of the study. Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE Dr Blot is a psychology teacher. She wanted to know how her students were progressing on the course. She decided to use the self-report method and used an online questionnaire that the students did in their free time to collect data. This included several closed questions (1–4), which collected quantitative data, and some open questions (5 and 6) which collected qualitative data. She asked her colleague to help her to interpret the responses to the open questions and to help to ensure that they had good inter-rater reliability, she devised a list to help them to interpret questions 5 and 6. For question 5 it included looking for comments about: reading up notes copying up notes reading the textbook looking things up online asking friends checking with the teacher copying out notes making summary notes making mind maps using past paper questions making test cards Some of the questions on the questionnaire were: 1 How often do you do the homework set? always 2 sometimes 3 never Have you written yourself a research methods glossary? yes no ‘Psychology is a difficult subject’. Do you: strongly agree agree Explain the difference between the open and closed questions. Suggest one more open question. Suggest one more closed question. Suggest why Dr Blot may have chosen to use an online questionnaire rather than one the students did on paper in the classroom. Explain why it was important that Dr Blot took steps to raise inter-rater reliability. Interviews For question 6 it included looking for comments about: 12 Reflections: Look at the Research methods in practice box. don’t know In an interview, the researcher is typically face-to-face with the participant. Interviews can, however, be conducted through any medium that allows real-time interaction, such as by telephone or through a chat facility. The same kinds of questions can be asked in interviews as in questionnaires, although more open questions may be used. The schedule of questions, that is the range of questions that are asked and the order of them, differs between different types of interviews. In a structured interview, the questions asked are the same for every participant and the order is fixed. There may even be instructions for the interviewer about how to sit or dress in order that the procedure is standardised each time data is collected. In an unstructured interview, in contrast, the questions asked depend on what the participant says, so the questions may be different for each participant. This is a very flexible technique but it may be hard to compare data collected from different participants or by different researchers. A compromise is a semi-structured interview. Here, there strongly disagree disagree KEY TERMS 4 Rate from 0 to 6 how well you understand the topic we have just completed: 0 = don’t understand at all 6 = completely understand 5 Explain what you do after each lesson to help you to remember what you have learned. 6 Describe how you will plan your revision for the next test. interview: a research method using verbal questions asked directly, e.g. face-to-face or on the telephone. structured interview: an interview with questions in a fixed order which may be scripted. Consistency might also be required for the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc. so they are standardised. unstructured interview: an interview in which most questions (after the first one) depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be given to the interviewer. semi-structured interview: an interview with a fixed list of open and closed questions. The interviewer can add more questions if necessary. Chapter 1: Research methods are some fixed questions, which make sure that there is some similar information from every participant. This means that comparisons can be made between them, and averages can be calculated if this is appropriate. In addition, it is possible to ask some questions that are specific to individual participants. This allows the researcher to develop ideas and explore issues that are particular to that person. Evaluating interviews As with questionnaires, interviewees may lie either because they want to seem more acceptable (a social desirability bias) or because they think they know the aim of the study, and are either trying to help the researcher by giving the answers they need, or to disrupt the research by doing the opposite. Interviewing is often time consuming and this can be a problem if it restricts the types of participants who volunteer for the research because it would give a narrow representation of feelings, beliefs or experiences. When interpreting participants’ responses to questions in an interview, researchers must be careful not to be subjective, that is, to produce findings which are based on a personal perspective. Instead, they should aim for objectivity, i.e. taking a view that is not led by one’s own feelings or beliefs. To achieve this, the interviewer may ask other researchers, who are experienced but unaware of the aims of their research, to interpret the findings. KEY TERMS subjectivity: a personal viewpoint, which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so may differ between individual researchers. It is not independent of the situation. objectivity: an unbiased external viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different researchers. Applying your knowledge of self-reports to novel research situations You should be able to recognise self-report studies, and decide whether they are questionnaires or interviews. You should also be able to choose which of these to use in a new situation. In addition, you should be able to recognise and write different types of questions (open and closed) and to identify and design different interview schedules (structured, semi-structured and unstructured). When doing this, it is important to consider how the method used affects the availability of different types of participants and their honesty, as this affects the validity of the findings. You should also think about the kinds of data that are produced, and the way it will be used. Although numerical data from closed questions can be analysed mathematically, data from open questions provides more in-depth information which may be more valid. For example, a closed question might not have a response close to a person’s view, so an open question would allow that person to express views that they could not do in the choices available in the closed question. Finally, the reliability of self-report data is important. Questionnaires and structured interviews may be higher in reliability because they are likely to be administered in a consistent way and because they generate numerical results which do not need interpretation. Responses to open questions, in contrast, have to be interpreted by the researcher and since they may differ in their opinions there is the possibility that they will be subjective. RESEARCH METHODS IN PRACTICE Dr Splash is planning an interview-based study because he wants to confirm that a new shopping centre is making people more helpful to each other. He wants to collect objective data about the number of times people are altruistic so has devised a structured interview with a list of specific questions such as ‘How many times has someone held a door open for you?’, ‘Have you helped anyone carry their shopping?’ and ‘Have you seen anyone assisting a parent with a buggy?’. However, he is worried that this may produce very limited data so has an alternative plan to use an unstructured interview. This would begin with the question ‘Please can you describe how friendly or helpful you have found people to be at the new shopping centre’, after which he would base his questions on what they said. A colleague suggests that both methods have limitations. Interpreting the responses to the unstructured interview might lead to very subjective data, especially as Dr Splash already believes that the participants will be finding the shopping centre encourages helpfulness. Although the data from the closed questions in the structured interview might produce more objective measures, this would limit opportunities for asking participants to expand on their answers. The colleague suggests that a semi-structured interview might be better. 13 Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Reflections: Look at the previous Research methods in practice box. Why is the first of Dr Splash’s suggestions a structured interview? Why would the data from these questions be more objective? Why is the second plan an unstructured interview? What is the problem with subjective interpretations of the participants’ responses in the unstructured interview? Suggest why a semi-structured interview would be better in this case. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 2 Shareen and Judith are investigating people’s phobias. They have decided to use self-reports. Shareen is suggesting using a questionnaire and Judith wants to interview people instead. 14 a Suggest one closed question and one open question that Shareen could use. b Suggest one reason why Judith might want to conduct an unstructured interview. c Describe one ethical problem that might arise in either Shareen’s or Judith’s version of the study. 1.3 Case studies A case study is a detailed investigation of a single instance, usually just one person, although it could, for example, be a single family or institution. The data collected is detailed and in-depth and may be obtained using a variety of different techniques. For example, the participant may be interviewed, observed, given tests or asked to fill in questionnaires. Case studies are particularly useful for looking at rare cases where a detailed description is useful, and for following developmental changes, where the progress of a child, or a person with a disorder can be tracked through their improvement or decline. Case studies are therefore sometimes linked to therapy but it is important to remember that when the case study as a research method is being discussed, the therapeutic purpose is not the main aim. Evaluating case studies In some ways, the findings from case studies are highly valid, as the individual is explored in great depth and within a genuine context such as their work or family. Validity may be improved further using triangulation, where the use of different techniques should produce similar findings, for example observations and interviews with the participant and questionnaires for their family should all lead to similar conclusions. The research includes details such as their past as well as their present situation, their social interactions, their thinking and their emotions as well as their behaviours. Such detail, however, carries risks. One potential problem is the development of a close relationship with the researcher. This may make the researcher subjective in their outlook, which would reduce the validity of the study. The level of detail can also be an ethical threat, as the questions asked may intrude into the participant’s private life and they may feel unable to refuse to answer them. The detail about the individual may make it hard to disguise their identity, even if they are not referred to by name, which would risk breaking the guideline of confidentiality. Reliability is also an issue, as there is a single participant and perhaps one or only a few research

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