Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Prepared By: Jovilyn L. Callos, RPm Psychology scientific study of mind and behavior. “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation part of our everyday lives Research Psychologists use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Prepared By: Jovilyn L. Callos, RPm Psychology scientific study of mind and behavior. “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation part of our everyday lives Research Psychologists use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior Psychologist-Practitioners (such as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists) use existing research to enhance the everyday life of others. Intuition a form of knowledge that appears in consciousness without obvious deliberation Hindsight Bias tendency to think that we could have predicted something that has already occurred that we probably would not have been able to predict  WHY PSYCHOLOGISTS RELY ON EMPIRICAL METHODS Empirical Methods Scientific Method processes of collecting and organizing data as the set of assumptions, rules, and and drawing conclusions about those procedures that scientists use to conduct data.provide a basis for collecting, analyzing, empirical research. and interpreting data within a common framework in which information can be shared. Values personal statements Facts objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study LEVELS OF EXPLANATION IN PSYCHOLOGY Levels of Explanation perspectives that are used to understand behavior Highest Levels of Explanation relate to social groups, organizations, and cultures Middle Levels of Explanation abilities and characteristics of individual people Lower Levels of Explanation closely tied to biological influences, such as genes, neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones Major Goal of Psychology is to predict behavior by understanding its causes FOUR PRIMARILY GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY Description: This goal involves observing and detailing behavior to distinguish between normal and abnormal actions. Techniques like surveys, case studies, and natural observation are used to gather detailed and objective descriptions of behaviors. Explanation: Psychologists aim to uncover the reasons behind behaviors, using theories and scientific methods to explain why individuals act in certain ways. This includes understanding the underlying mechanisms and causes of behavior. Prediction: By analyzing past behaviors, psychologists predict future actions and patterns. This goal is essential for anticipating behaviors in various contexts, aiding in planning and decision-making. Change or Control Behavior: The ultimate goal of psychology is to influence or change behavior. This involves developing interventions and strategies to promote positive behavior changes and improve mental health and well-being. THE MOST IMPORTANT APPROACHES (SCHOOLS) OF PSYCHOLOGY School of psychology Description Important contributors Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of Structuralism psychological experience William James Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular Functionalism psychological aspects that they currently possess William James Sigmund Freud, Carl Psychodynamic Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik early childhood experiences in determining behavior Erickson Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and John B. Watson, B. F. Behaviorism therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself Skinner The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Cognitive judgments Frederic Bartlett, Jean Piaget Fritz Heider, Leon Social-cultural The study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find Festinger, Stanley themselves influence thinking and behavior Schachter MOST IMPORTANT QUESTIONS Nature versus nurture Free will versus determinism Accuracy versus inaccuracy Conscious versus unconscious processing. Differences versus similarities. NATURE VERSUS NURTURE Nature biological makeup Nurture experiences that we have during our lives Heritability The proportion of the observed differences on characteristics among people (e.g., in terms of their height, intelligence, or optimism) that is due to genetics  EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Plato - argued on the nature side, believing that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn Aristotle - was more on the nurture side, believing that each child is born as an “empty slate” (in Latin a tabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily acquired through learning and experience. René Descartes - onsidered the issue of free will, arguing in its favor and believing that the mind controls the body - believed in the principle of dualism (that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body) EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS STRUCTURALISM: INTROSPECTION AND THE AWARENESS OF SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE Wundt - structuralism (approach focuses on the conscious experience and its components. Structuralists are interested in what happens in our minds when we see, hear, touch, or think about something. - Introspection (involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing a math problem) Edward Bradford Titchener - best known of the structuralists, who was a student of Wundt EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS FUNCTIONALISM AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY William James and the other members - functionalism (was to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess) Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection - which proposed that the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they were useful, or functional EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY Psychodynamic psychology - is an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Sigmund Freud - developed his theories about behavior through extensive analysis of the patients that he treated in his private clinical practice - Freud’s ideas were extended by other psychologists whom he influenced, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Erik Erikson Psychoanalysis - through a deep and thorough exploration of the person’s early sexual experiences and current sexual desires are revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS 9 PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY Sigmund Freud - Psychosexual Development THREE HYPOTHETICAL PARTS OF THE PERSONALITY ID - pleasure principle EGO - reality principle. SUPEREGO - conscience -socially approved “shoulds” and “should nots” EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS BEHAVIORISM AND THE QUESTION OF FREE WILL Behaviorism- school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. - Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a “black box” into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are received. John B. Watson - influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In his research Watson found that systematically exposing a child to fearful stimuli in the presence of objects that did not themselves elicit fear could lead the child to respond with a fearful behavior to the presence of the stimulus. In the best known of his studies, an 8-month-old boy named Little Albert was used as the subject. Here is a summary of the findings: EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS BEHAVIORISM AND THE QUESTION OF FREE WILL John B. Watson - In the best known of his studies, an 8-month-old boy named Little Albert was used as the subject. Here is a summary of the findings: The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat was placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child showed no fear of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud sound behind Albert’s back by striking a steel bar with a hammer whenever the baby touched the rat. The child cried when he heard the noise. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, the child was again shown the rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away from the rat. https://youtu.be/5duLMjaTL0U?si=v91MdkKFHBb7eXhE EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning - had discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated with the presentation of food. Terms to know: Stimulus- something mthat exist in the surroundings or that is presented Response - how the animal respond to the stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - refers to a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior conditioning. (food) Unconditioned Response (UR) - is an innate and reflexive reaction that occurs without any prior learning or the natural response. (salivation) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. (bell) Conditioned Response (CR) - a behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus. (bell=salivation) Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning Extinction - is when the CR (salivation) stops because the CS (bell) hasn’t been presented with the US(food) for a while. Spontaneous Recovery - when the CS produces the CR after the behavior has been extinct Stimulus Generalization - face of similar stimuli. For instance, god generalized his response to the other stimuli sounds like buzzer. Stimulus Discrimination - learned tendency to respond to the stimulus used in training. EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Burrhus Frederick - Operant Conditioning & B.F Skinner - used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards or reinforcements Reinforcement - is any event that strengthens a certain behavior and it can be positive or negative in nature. Punishment - is described as the application of an adverse outcome in an effort to decrease or weaken a specific behavior. EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Burrhus Frederick - Operant Conditioning FOUR PROCEDURES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Positive Reinforcement - includes actions or events that strengthen a response by providing a stimulus for certain behaviors, such as giving a child a reward or praise for cleaning their room. Negative Reinforcement - also strengthens a response, but by the removal of an unfavorable outcome, such as the child cleaning their room to avoid being grounded. Positive Punishment - punishment may involve presenting a negative reinforcer—such as a spanking, scolding, or the imposition of a prison sentence. Negative Punishment - it can involve the removal of a positive reinforcer, such as taking away a favorite toy EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Burrhus Frederick - Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedules: Responses are reinforced after a specific number of responses Variable-ratio schedules: Responses are reinforced after an unspecified or unpredictable number of responses Fixed-interval schedules: Responses are reinforced after a specific amount of time Variable-interval schedules: Responses are reinforced after an unspecified or unpredictable amount of time EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Burrhus Frederick - SKINNER BOX Skinner’s operant conditioning chamber (also called Skinner Box) was designed to teach rats how to push a lever. This behavior is not natural to rats, so operant conditioning with positive and negative reinforcement were performed in roder to teach the behavior. Positive Reinforcement - a rat was rewarded with food when he pressed the lever Negative Reinforcement - a rat was able to turn off electric shocks produced by the floor by pressing the lever. EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS Burrhus Frederick - SKINNER BOX EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive Psychology - field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment. Neuroimaging - is the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain. These images are used to diagnose brain disease and injury EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS SOCIAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Social-Cultural Psychology - is the study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior Conformity - we frequently change our beliefs and behaviors to be similar to those of the people we care about. - is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS SOCIAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Social Norms — the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate Norms - include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group. Culture - represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS SOCIAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Norms in Western cultures (Individualism) which is about valuing the self and one’s independence from others. Norms in the East Asian culture (Interdependence or Collectivism) focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others. The predominant norms relate to group togetherness and connectedness, and duty and responsibility to one’s family and other groups. THANK YOU