Child Development Lecture - 2022

2022 Jenny McDonald 2 Outline 2022 Some learning and developmental theories The stages of child development Factors influencing development and learning Some clinical implications along the way Jenny McDonald 3 Learning objectives 1. List the areas of development in childhood 2. Outline the developm...

2022 Jenny McDonald 2 Outline 2022 Some learning and developmental theories The stages of child development Factors influencing development and learning Some clinical implications along the way Jenny McDonald 3 Learning objectives 1. List the areas of development in childhood 2. Outline the development of skills (cognitive, motor, social and language) throughout childhood 3. Discuss the factors that influence child development 2022 Jenny McDonald 4 Three concepts to remember 1. Development is a powerful index of well-being in children 2. Development is influenced by genetics, experience, environment and neuro-maturation 3. Development is sequential and is divided into inter-related domains 2022 5 Charles Darwin: Proud dad A Biographical Sketch of an Infant Mind (1873), 2, 285-294. 2022 Jenny McDonald 6 Cognitive development Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development The way children learn changes with maturity 2022 Jenny McDonald 7 Piaget: Cognitive development 2022 Stage Age Cognition Sensorimotor Infancy and toddlerhood Sensory experiences and object manipulation Preoperational Pre-schooler (2-7 years) Pretend and symbolic play; learn about taking the point of view of other people; struggle with logic Jenny McDonald 8 2022 Jenny McDonald 9 Piaget: Cognitive development 2022 Stage Age Cognition Sensorimotor Infancy and toddlerhood Sensory experiences and object manipulation Preoperational Pre-schooler (2-7 years) Pretend and symbolic play; struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people Concrete Operational Primary school (7-11 years) Simple logic: able to generalise (see rules) but not hypothesise (predict outcomes using rules) Formal Operational Adolescence Abstract reasoning Jenny McDonald 10 Equilibrium New idea Learning occurs through assimilation (evolution) or accommodation (revolution) Disequilibrium Assimilation Accommodation New equilibrium 2022 Jenny McDonald 11 Experiences & consequences B F Skinner: ‘Operant Conditioning’ We learn through experience Especially the consequences of experience Changing behaviours through reward and punishment https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3487621 2022 Jenny McDonald 12 B F Skinner: Operant Conditioning Punishment Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement 2022 Behaviour Jenny McDonald 13 The consequences of experience Positive reinforcement (rewards) Negative reinforcement (removal of adverse stimulus) increases a behaviour Punishment suppresses behaviour and promotes aggression Carrots work better than sticks 2022 Jenny McDonald 14 Neurophysiology Shore R, Shore R. Rethinking the brain : new insights into early development. New York: Families and Work Institute; 1997. xviii, 92 p. p. 2022 Jenny McDonald 15 Experience: Hubel & Wiesel Effects of visual deprivation on morphology and physiology of cells in the cat's lateral geniculate body. J Neurophysiol 26: 978–993, 1963 2022 Jenny McDonald 16 Sociocultural theory Lev Vygotsky Relationships matter We learn from others through social interaction and inclusion in society Relationships come before learning 2022 Jenny McDonald 17 THE STAGES OF CHILDHOOD 2022 Jenny McDonald 18 Child development Cognitive Language Social Fine motor Sequential acquisition of skills Milestones Inter-related domains Pattern of development assists diagnosis Gross motor 2022 Jenny McDonald 19 NEONATE Birth-1 mo 2022 Jenny McDonald 20 INFANCY: 1mo-12mo 2022 Jenny McDonald 21 Infancy: first year 2022 Establish feeding Learn to manipulate objects and walk Early words and gestures Attachment to primary caregiver Critical period for sensory development Jenny McDonald 22 Amblyopia Impaired visual acuity due to a disruption of the normal development of the visual pathway Congenital cataracts need to be removed by 3 months Refractive errors need to be corrected 2022 Jenny McDonald 23 TODDLERHOOD 1-3 YEARS 2022 Jenny McDonald 24 Toddler: 1-3 years 2022 Autonomy → toileting and tantrums Exploration → Running, jumping and climbing Imitation and symbolism → Words, phrases, pretend play Enjoy and seek social interaction Little sense of danger or consequence Jenny McDonald 25 Clinical correlate: Child Drowning Royal Life Saving National Drowning report 2021 2022 Jenny McDonald 26 PRESCHOOL YEARS: 3-5 YEARS 2022 Jenny McDonald 27 Preschooler 2022 Improved self-regulation Independence: dressing, eating and toileting Stairs and drawing Identity: name, age & gender Sentences, asking and answering questions Cooperative and story-telling play Magical thinking & fears Jenny McDonald 28 Autism spectrum disorder 2022 Delayed language and social skills Restricted imagination in play Explosive tantrums Delayed self-care skills Jenny McDonald 29 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 5-12 YEARS Middle childhood 2022 Improved attention, planning and memory Literacy and numeracy, writing Hopping, skipping and catching Morals, understand rules and hierarchies Playground politics: cliques and increasing awareness of sexuality Jenny McDonald 31 Childhood Obesity 25% Australian children are overweight or obese (AIHW, 2020) More common in disadvantaged families Weight stigma, discrimination and bullying Poorer health & educational outcomes From: Han JC, Lawlor DA, Kimm SY. Childhood obesity. The Lancet. 2010 May 15;375(9727):1737-48. 2022 Jenny McDonald 32 Photograph: By schams.org - Fotos Schams e.V., CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=55114650 ADOLESCENCE 12-18 years 2022 Jenny McDonald 33 Physical maturity Psychological maturity Adolescence Identity Autonomy Intimacy Cognitive maturity Egocentrism and emotional turmoil (optional) 2022 34 Diabetes mellitus The incidence of diabetes is increasing in children 2022 Regular meals and forbidden foods Insulin and blood glucose monitoring Growth complicates management Body image and identity, autonomy impacted Jenny McDonald 35 Young adulthood: 19 years + Developed countries Establishment of identity, autonomy and intimacy Tertiary education → Dialectical reasoning …Risk-taking Patton GC, Sawyer SM, Santelli JS, et al. Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing. Lancet 2016; 387(10036): 2423-78. 2022 Jenny McDonald 36 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DEVELOPMENT 2022 Jenny McDonald 37 Intelligence The ability to learn, reason and solve problems Fairly stable throughout life Determines development, educational and health outcomes Twin studies and DNA studies show strongly heritable Early influences of nurture and education diminish over time Heritability of intelligence higher in high SES Plomin R, Von Stumm S. The new genetics of intelligence. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2018 Mar;19(3):148-59. 2022 Jenny McDonald 38 Down syndrome Down, JLH Clin. Lect. Rep. 3: 259 only, 1866 Lejeune J, Gauthier M, Turpin R CR Hebd Se a ́ nces Acad Sci (248): 602–603 (1959). Photo: From Ikoner. An exhibition about the right to exist. Fotografiska and Glada Hudik-theatre Photography by Emma Svensson 2022 Jenny McDonald 39 Nurturing influences nature Teaching, soothing & rewards moderate Language development Self-care skills Self regulation Empathy & relationships Bornstein, Marc H., and Robert H. Bradley, eds. Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development. Routledge, 2014. 2022 Jenny McDonald 40 Landmark orphanage studies The Crèche Orphanage, Lebanon No attention, stimulation or affection IQ at 16 depended on age of adoption: < 2 years → mean IQ 100 2-6 years → mean IQ 80 6 years → mean IQ 50 Dennis, W., 1973: Children of the Crèche, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York. 2022 Jenny McDonald 41 Structural and physiological changes Trauma and neglect PET scans: reduced brain metabolism MRI scans: significantly reduced grey-matter and white-matter volume and an enlarged amygdala Persistently raised cortisol levels: dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis Walker SP, Wachs TD, Grantham-McGregor S, Black MM, Nelson CA, Huffman SL, et al. Inequality in early childhood: risk and protective factors for early child development. The Lancet. 2011;378(9799):1325-38. 2022 Jenny McDonald 42 Exposure to trauma Stress Predictable, supported & moderate Unpredictable & severe Resilience Vulnerability Garbarino J. Not all bad treatment is psychological maltreatment. Child abuse & neglect. 2011;35(10):797-801. 2022 Jenny McDonald 43 Socioeconomic disadvantage INCREASES EXPOSURE TO TRAUMA REDUCES PROTECTIVE FACTORS Walker SP et al. Inequality in early childhood: risk and protective factors for early child development. The Lancet. 2011;378(9799):1325-38. 44 Early child development in Australia Percentage of 5-yearolds developmentally on track according to SES (SEIFA quintile) Australian Early Development Census National Report 2021 https://www.aedc.gov.au/resources/detail/2021-aedc-national-report 2022 Jenny McDonald 45 Global poverty Nutrition, education and safety Malnutrition – calories & micronutrients (iron and iodine) Inadequate cognitive stimulation Exposure to trauma →Widespread sub-optimal child development and adult intelligence Walker SP, Wachs TD, Gardner JM, Lozoff B, Wasserman GA, Pollitt E, et al. Child development: risk factors for adverse outcomes in developing countries. The Lancet. 2007;369(9556):145-57. 2022 Jenny McDonald 47 MODERN THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT 2022 Jenny McDonald 48 Nature and nurture intertwined Maturation, relationships and experience Genetics and health Jenny McDonald 2022 49 Unified Theory of Development Sameroff A. Child development. 2010;81(1):6-22. Cumulative social risk, parental interaction and perception and developmental trajectory 2022 Jenny McDonald 50 Conclusions Child development explained by theories and supported by neuroscience Children at each developmental stage have unique skills and understanding of the world Child development is influenced by biological and environmental factors and the interplay between both 2022 Jenny McDonald 51