Chapter 4: The Concept of Science and Technology PDF

CHAPTER 4 THE CONCEPT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DR. NOORHASYIMAH ISMAIL School of Professional and Continuing Education (SPACE) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 1  OBJECTIVES At the end of the teach...

CHAPTER 4 THE CONCEPT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DR. NOORHASYIMAH ISMAIL School of Professional and Continuing Education (SPACE) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 1  OBJECTIVES At the end of the teaching and learning process, students will be able to: 1. Identify the concept of science and its descriptions from various perspectives. 2. Define the development phase of science and technology. 3. Explain the Islamic perspective on science and technology.  OBJECTIVES 4. Describe the main principles that form the foundation of Islamic science and technology. 5. Explain the misunderstanding of science studies and Islamic perspective towards science which is often labeled as secular knowledge.  INTRODUCTION Islamic teachings do not prevent humans from carrying out science and technology activities. The evidence from the Qur'an shows that there is no restraint for men to acquire knowledge and to apply science, it is even fardhu kifayah to develop and apply science for the benefit of humankind.  INTRODUCTION Islam is a religion that cares about the culture of knowledge and invites its people to avoid ignorance. One of the main ways to promote the culture of knowledge and prevent people from ignorance is through education. Hence, education is demanded in Islam with the knowledge that the sciences must be beneficial and not contradictory to the Shariah.  THE CONCEPT OF SCIENCE The word science comes from the word scio, scire or scientia (Latin) which means knowledge. According to Endang Saifuddin Ansari (1982: 43), science has special characteristics, signs and special conditions. Hence, science is more accurately referred to as knowledge, or simply, science. According to Wan Fuad (1990: 3), the term science originally brought a simple understanding that is, the knowledge. Before the emergence of modern science, science has always been defined by this simple understanding, which is the knowledge that has been approved after the centuries-old modifications and alterations. However, today’s definition of science has changed.  DEFINITION OF SCIENCE Science is an organized (systematic) knowledge that can be tested or proven to be true; a branch of knowledge that based solely on material or factual (physics, chemistry, conservation etc.). - Bilingual Dictionary (1990: 1111) Science is a structured and organized group of knowledge related to the phenomenon study of living and non-living things that exist in the natural world, by means of objective methods through experimental and observational studies in order to produce reliable principles and tested the truth. - Sulaiman Nordin (1993: 148)  CONTINUED… Hairudin Harun (1992: 5) quotes Clagett's view who defines science as a knowledge generated through observations and beliefs, or systematic descriptions of natural phenomena. In terms of the tradition of modern science, it can be said that scientific methodology only involves four major intellectual activity processes, i.e.., observations, generalizations, descriptions, and predictions. In conclusion, science is a concerted human effort to understand the natural world, coordinated in a system of facts, structures, classes and laws of the affairs investigated (nature, humanity and religion) to the extent that is possible by reasoning and assisted by human senses, while the truth can be tested empirically and experimentally.  THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY Technology is often used together with scientific terms and some consider it synonymous with science. Actually, this assumption is not so precise. Instead, the more precise meaning of technology can be understood by referring to its etymology.  CONTINUED… From a language point, technology comes from the Greek 'Techne' meaning art or hand work and 'Logos' means a systematic discourse or words. Therefore, technology is a more practical knowledge than science that is more theoretical.  CONTINUED… In terms of terminology, technology is defined as a systematic knowledge and action, usually associated with industrial processes but is also used with any activity and closely related to engineering science.  TECHNOLOGY DEFINITION Technology is the use of general knowledge in 'industrial science' (Fowler & Fowler, 1964), tools including machinery, intellectual tools such as computer language and analytical techniques, and the ones that use mathematics (Mesthene, 1971) science or knowledge arranged for practical tasks (Galbraith, 1974). According to Sardar (1977), technology is more of a social impact than a definition, as we are getting closer to the impact, it becomes increasingly difficult for us to define it.  CONTINUED… Dickson (1974), states that the use of the word technology has been used in a wider social definition in a manner that demonstrates the relationship between language, speech, and pronunciation. Sidik Baba (1997) defines technology as an aspect of science-production that facilitates things. If it is produced with good intentions and properly used then it can prosper human life.  SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ISLAMIC HISTORY The Arabic word coincides with the term technology is sina'ah which means applied science. In describing the meaning of the word sina'ah, al-Jurjani states that "knowledge which is not related to activity (practical), is nurtured for its own purpose is called ilm, and if it has nothing to do with an activity (practical) and nurtured by the activity then it is called sina'ah. In conclusion, technological knowledge is a practical or technical knowledge that allows humans to make change to the natural world. T H E MAJ OR P ROCE SS OF T H E I NT E L LECT UAL ACT I V I T Y OF T H E MODE R N SCI E NCE ME T H ODOL OGY  SCIENCE IN ISLAMIC TRADITION In the science tradition of early civilization, especially Islamic civilization, empirical and mathematical or logical methods are only part of the methods used (Hairudin Harun, 1992: 7). The Islamic science methodology also recognizes non- empirical methods such as inspiration and gnostic / kashf as belonging to scientific methodology. These methods have been practiced by well-known Muslim scientists.  CONTINUED Ibn Sina was reported to have done iktikaf and tafakkur (meditation) in the mosque for inspiration to solve science problems when he failed to solve it in the usual way. Ibn Sina did not think "rational methods" are higher than "prayer methods". In fact, for Ibn Sina praying is part of a scientific methodology. Strictly speaking, the definition of "scientific methodology" in Islamic science is wider than is commonly understood today. Thus, the field of knowledge in the Islamic science tradition which termed as science is to cover various fields.  MISCONCEPTIONS TOWARDS SCIENCE STUDIES There is misconception among the Muslim community towards the study of science that is labeled as secular knowledge or worldly knowledge alone. This misunderstanding is the result of the division of knowledge into religious knowledge and worldly knowledge. Among the adverse effects is to experience feelings of low self-esteem as they consider themselves far from religion as well as being less motivated to live up to and practice religious teachings because they feel that there is no connection between science and religious life. It also supports the process of secularization of knowledge as the religion become isolated from everyday life.  THE MORE ACCURATE DIVISION OF KNOWLEDGE Knowledge is divided into fardu ain and fardu kifayah. Through the division, the positive thinking of the Muslim community on science education can be enhanced because it involves the obligation of fulfilling the duty of the individual (fardu ain) or releasing the responsibility of a society (fardu kifayah). The division also allows a branch in science that originally fardu kifayah to turn into a fardu ain, when its necessity becomes desperate and can cause harm if it is not studied by Muslims. TECHNOLOGY PHILOSOPHY According to Francis Lim (2012, viii-xi), in the philosophy of technology there are at least three patterns of approach, namely; 1. Epistemological approach 2. Anthropological approach 3. Ontological (metaphysical) approach  3 APPROACHES OF PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY 1. Epistemological Approach: The philosophy of technology that deals with epistemological problem, which studies the structure, conditions and justification of technology, as long as technology is a knowledge or implications from the knowledge. 2. Anthropological Approach: in this philosophical reflection, technology is associated with human nature. 3. Ontological Approach: rejects the general perception that technology is an applied science and tools. Basically, technology is the implication of human nature as a modifier in the world. So, ontologically (in the most fundamental terms), technology precedes science.  TECHNOSCIENCE In the 20th century, high technology developed, and science turned into technoscience. The term technoscience means that science and technology are not two separate areas, but two interrelated fields (Francis Lim, 2012; 13).  TECHNOLOGY’S HISTORY The rapid development of science and technology has facilitated human life. Hence, efforts to intensify science and technology activities has increasingly gained worldwide attention. In this regard, technological developments can be categorized into three phases, the pre-revolutionary phase, the technological revolution phase I, and the technological revolution phase II. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL PHASE  PHASE 1: PRE-REVOLUTIONARY Starting with the development of human thinking in finding solutions for basic problems in life. Humans are trying to find the idea of getting food by using stone blocks as a tool. For example, the use of stones to break shell snails and hard fruit. Small stones are sharpened to obtain sharpness that are used as the tool for cutting the meat of the hunted animals and defending themselves from enemies. Using the fires produced by means of stones to enable them to burn food, warm up and repel the wild animals.  CONTINUED … The long-distance communication between humans at that time was by fire and smoke. Demonstrate the creativity of a human being that capable of building a pyramid by arranging large stone- driven boulders using round logs. In line with the development of time, this idea has been developed to create a wheel. Humans are triggers for the manufacturing technology such as wicker and simple craft.  PHASE 2: TECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION PHASE I The power of human thinking and creativity is growing. Humans began to use static items to get a new, more useful result. By combining several components, humans are able to create cars, machines, phones and so on. This demands humans to familiarize with the machines created in order to maximize their benefits. The construction field began to gain attention until 1884 where the first skyscraper in Chicago known as the Home Insurance Building was constructed using a fire-resistant metal frame with a height of 55 meters (in 1931 it was forced to be demolished). PHASE 3: TECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION PHASE II Exhibit the diversity of modern and sophisticated discoveries. Humans have been able to create more complex machines and systems with better results for the purpose of improving the quality of life. The increasing sophistication of technology needs to be managed in a good way so that, the purpose of technology as a tool for human wellbeing does not turned them as slaves to the technology instead. Hence, spiritual elements should be reinforced in line with technological developments. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY From the Islamic Perspective  SCIENTIFIC STUDIES ACCORDING TO ISLAM Islam is very concerned with the culture of knowledge and calls upon its people to earnestly seeking for knowledge. The firmness of Islam towards the process of seeking knowledge can be proved by the fact that the first revelation revealed to Prophet Muhammad SAW emphasized on reading as an essential tool for seeking knowledge. Studying knowledge is an obligation on every Muslim, whether male or female. This claim is based on a hadith of Ibn Majah which means: "seeking knowledge is an obligation to every Muslim". According to al- Ghazali, the obligation to study the knowledge mentioned in this hadith is divided into two, namely compulsory (fardu ain) and obligatory (fardu kifayah).  CONTINUED… By seeking knowledge, a Muslim will be able to escape from ignorance, even Islam honors and places him at high position. Islam also distinguishes between knowledgeable and ignorant groups. The Qur'an explains that the knowledgeable groups are elevated to several ranks higher than those who are not knowledgeable. The contents of the Qur'an cover various types of knowledge. According to Sardar, the Holy Quran is like a guiding light showing the straight path towards knowledge and salvation. The Qur'an also touches several scientific themes in it such as biology, astronomy, meteorology, botanical, zoology, and cosmology, although the main theme of the Qur'an is about the creation of God.  CONTINUED In addition for containing the indications of the law and the halal-haram of an activity, manners in muamalat (social interaction) between human beings in the field of economics, business, sociology, warfare and international relations, the Qur'an also contains information or signs about matters that have become the focus of scientific studies. For examples are the discovery of finger print as human identification, the round shape of the earth, earth’s rotation on its axis, circle the sun according to its orbit, the creation of the sky and the earth, and the creation of pairs of beings.  CONTINUED… There are many Quranic verses that encourage people to think, see and observe the surrounding environment. Indirectly, this means that the adoption of a fundamental principle for a Muslim to be a scientist has been given attention by the Qur'an. Among the verses that encourage people to think, see, and observe the surrounding environment is the word of Allah SWT (adz-Dzaariyaat 51: 20-21) whose translation: “And on the earth are signs for the certain [in faith]. And in yourselves. Then will you not see?”  CONTINUED… The exploration of science in parallel with the Quranic approach, can indirectly reveal the signs of Allah’s power who has created the universe. In this way man can recognize his God after realizing the reality of his creation and his position as a servant of Allah. The Qur'an sees science in the framework of intellect, that is, the entire human experience, and demands knowledge to have a very high position in the Islamic society, but it is subject to the values and ethics of the Qur’an. In this framework, intellect and revelation goes hand in hand and there is no conflict between Islam and science. However, a conflict can arise when the science and its methodology are considered as all-inclusive values, thus sacrificing other values in Islam.  ENCOURAGEMENT FROM HADITH In addition to the Quranic verses, there are some hadiths that encourage Muslims to study and explore the phenomenon of science. Among the hadiths is the event of the Prophet Muhammad SAW who forbade his companions from carrying out the process of pollination of palm trees (by sprinkling the male pollen on the female pollen) and causing the dates to not fully ripened. Prophet Muhammad SAW explained the importance and necessity of medicine that indirectly encourages Muslims to study the science related to it.  Knowledge of Science = Knowledge of Wisdom In the history of Islamic civilization, science is also known as wisdom, while a scientist is called a ‘hakim’ who means a wise person. This is in line with the teachings of Islam that strongly encourage its people to have knowledge and wisdom. In explaining the importance of knowledge to the people, the Prophet SAW said: "The wisdom (like) the lost property of the believer, wherever he finds it, then he is more entitled to it."  THE VIEW OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS Given the positive view of Islam on science, it is not surprising that some Muslim scholars such as al-Ghazali (1992: 1/27) regards the studies of medicine and mathematics as fardu kifayah. This is because the studies on medical knowledge is important for maintaining the body’s health whilst the studies on mathematics is important in business affairs and inheritance’s distribution.  Knowledge of Science = Knowledge of Natural Phenomenon According to Sulaiman Noordin (1979: 1), in Islamic civilization, the natural world is considered as an open book of Allah or the second book containing the signs (secrets) of Allah’s greatness and wisdom. This means that the basis of all scientific discoveries are intended for the sake of science, however when it comes together with the spirit of Islamic knowledge, it will be able to open the human mind towards thinking of the greatness and wisdom of God, the Creator of the whole universe. SCIENCE AND LEARNING IN MEDIEVAL ISLAM Early Islamic teaching encouraged the pursuit of all knowledge that helped to improve people’s lives Arabic became the international language of scholarship Muslims translated important works from ancient Greece and Egypt Huge libraries were established in big cities like Baghdad, Cairo and Damascus  Islamic observatory The Whipple Collection, Cambridge  CHEMISTRY AND ALCHEMY Chemistry was not seen as a separate science, but was an important part of other industries and crafts Islamic scientists developed new experimental techniques and methods such as distillation Alchemy was important as a science of the cosmos and the soul  Figures of some alchemical apparatus and symbolism in Islamic manuscripts Chemical and pharmaceutical processes from a manuscript in the Freer Gallery in Washington.  MATHEMATICS Islamic mathematicians built on the work of Greek, Indian, Persian and Chinese mathematicians Islamic mathematicians were interested in different number systems Developed algebra and geometry which was important in architecture and other technologies Islamic tile patterns used to decorate buildings  MEDICINE AND SURGERY Islamic medicine was based on the Greek model of the four elements and ‘humours’ Disease was thought of as an imbalance of ‘humours’ Pharmacy, combining herbal medicine and alchemy, was important Islamic law forbade dissections Illustration from a Persian anatomical work http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/  ISLAM & TECHNOLOGY Islam does not reject any form of technology and modernity as long as it does not conflict with its teachings. The Quran proclaims that humans are the caliphs on the earth and God created the nature for human to use them efficiently. The Word of Allah (al-Baqarah 2: 29) which means: “It is He who created for you all of that which is on the earth.”. THE EVIDENCE OF HISTORY ON TECHNOLOGY EXISTENCE http://www.iris-bg.org/publications/geopolitical.htm  Water raising machine from Al-Jazari manuscript http://www.muslimheritage.com/ImageLibrary/  TECHNOLOGY IN MASJIDIL HARAM Photograph courtesy of SacredSites.com WHY DID THE “GOLDEN AGE” COME TO AN END? Religious divisions caused problems by the end of the 11th century Conservative theologians imposed a return to orthodox beliefs and rejected ‘foreign sciences’ The European crusades and attacks by the Mongols weakened the empire  Crusaders besieging Damascus http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/ ISLAMIC PRINCIPLES ON TECHNOLOGY The continuity of technology in Islam leads to the fundamentals of universal, fixed, and comprehensive values, concepts and principles of Islam. The principles of technology in Islam include the concepts of; 1. Tauhid 2. Khilafah 3. Ibadah (worship) 4. Halal & Haram 5. Justice (‘adil) & unjust acts (zaalim) 6. Istislah (public interest) & dhiya’ (wastage). 1) THE PRINCIPLE OF TAUHID Put mankind as a servant responsible for carrying out all instructions and abandon all the prohibitions of Allah by believing that there is no god but Allah. Science and technology in Islam are closely related to the faith of a person who is the one who invents and produces technology. Hence, if the individual must hold fast to the Islamic law and produce a product which meets the law and at the same time get the pleasure of Allah S.W.T.  CONTINUED… The tauhid-based technology directs the technology to be used and channeled to the right path and does not violate the order set forth in the Qur'anic verses and Hadiths. The technology and its results should bring people closer to God and to remind that man is holding the trust to prosper the nature. In the context of Islamic teachings, technology is seen as a tool that human beings must pursue to increase faith in God. For example, with human technology it is possible to create a submarine that allows people to dive into the bottom of the ocean and explore the contents of the ocean of God's Greatest creation.  2) THE PRINCIPLE OF KHILAFAH The Caliph is "a person entrusted with God to regulate human life on earth based on God's revelations and sharia, so that life becomes more organized and there is a sacred purpose of life to attain the pleasure of Allah". Humans as khalifah should use knowledge as a condition in building modern civilization and technology (technology and its results need to be used in a good way (makruf) rather than for the wrong purpose / immoral). Technology should be used as a means to prosper nature and not to destroy nature. For example, a computer programmer needs to ensure that the content of his program is pointing the goodness, as well as the pictures that are displayed. 3) HALAL AND HARAM PRINCIPLE Halal is permissible and good acts, while illegal is a prohibited acts. The concept of halal and haram also covers the aspects of technology, that any activities must considers the aspect of halal. For example, in the field of biotechnology there are certain boundaries and limitations in Islam such that, it is illegal to use pork DNA biotechnology in the processing of goods, food, and drinks as it is clearly convicted of its ban in syarak.  4) PRINCIPLE OF IBADAH All human action is subject to the scope of self-devotion to Allah for His mercy and pleasure. The use of technology that are not against the scope of devotion to God is considered as ibadah with guaranteed reward. Besides, it give the benefits to human life and the universe. That is to say, any technology activity with good intentions, lawful and sharia-obedient is considered as ibadah. For example, biotechnology application in the external fertilization of the sperm of a husband and the egg of a wife might be necessary to acquire offspring in certain cases. However, if it is misused and bringing harms, Allah’s punishment in the hereafter is awaiting.  5) PRINCIPLE OF ADIL AND ZALIM The use of technology should be applied justly, i.e., by placing technology as a tool to observing and studying the evidence of Allah existence and grandeur of God's creation, which at the same time proves His greatness. The justly use of aerospace technology enables humans to explore the natural world and see for themselves the wonders of God's creation with the movements of planets moving over its orbit and do not collide with each other which indicates the existence of God's ruling. Zalim in the context of technology is by misusing technology. For example, human cloning technology or producing other living creatures as a result of a combination of human and dog genes.  6) PRINCIPLE ISTISLAH & DHIYA’ Istislah means public interest while Dhiya 'means wastage. Islam requires the creation of technology that aims to meet the needs and interests of the general public. Islamic teachings allow their followers to accept and use whatever results from technology as long as it benefits and does not lead to wrongdoings. If the technology causes the human being to neglect the remembrance and thinking of Allah (zikr) and destroy the humanity's value, then warnings and guidance should be given to the technology user so as not to overlook the real purpose. COLOURING THE TECHNOLOGY WITH ISLAM Islamic scholars are of the opinion that alternative technologies need to be sought to avoid the effects of contamination on pure Islamic culture and way of life. For example, K.D. Sharma and M. A. Qureshi argue that the idea of alternative technology is based on "technology selection from a set of technologies available to produce goods and commodities to meet the needs of all".  ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY: FROM THE WESTERN PERSPECTIVE  CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY 1) It may seem primitive, low status, and involve high costs or any of the three conditions. 2) Must be in accordance with the sources of the country 3) Must be in line with the country's economic, social, cultural and political objectives 4) Not damaging the environment.  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY Can be seen in 2 ways; 1. Demonstrate that the only technology for society is the technology that can develop without external help. It is a local creation by a developing country. 2. Alternative technology can not be developed according to the philosophy and intellectual framework of western civilization. CONSIDERATION OF THE LOCAL NECESSITIES IN THE USE OF FOREIGN TECHNOLOGY 1. Awareness of the value system embodied in foreign technology 2. Confidence in community capability 3. The agreement that any changes that are not good in the society will not happen. 4. Selection and careful research on foreign technology 5. Adjustment if necessary, before replicated 6. Track and study the consequences of foreign technology 7. Rejection and removal if it proves to cause and adverse implication.  CONCLUSION Western technology has embraced a lot of culture & civilization of Islam. The collapse of Islamic civilization and Western world domination has caused the Muslims to become backward in various fields of technology including technology. As a result, Muslims accepting the foreign technology without being able to modify that brings with it the ideological expertise. A concrete and integrated approach should be taken into consideration by the Islamic world to minimize the effect of foreign technology transfer towards the integrity of pure Islamic culture and at the same time, to emerge the Islamic world with technology characterized by the spirit and soul of Islam.  Islam is a complete and comprehensive religion that includes education and knowledge studies that incorporated both religious knowledge and science. Hence, Islam does not prevent its people from studying science as long as it does not lead to harm or conflict with the Islamic faith and principle. Muslims should not be left behind in the pursuit of scientific advancement as it is part of Islam’s demand. In fact, Muslim scientists are aware of the scientific theories especially those from the Greek civilization led by Hippocrates and Galen. This circumstance did not prevent them from engaging in the research studies and making improvements to some of the errors found in previous science theory.