CENG 291 Engineering in Society (Kumasi 2A) 2022-2023 PDF

ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY CENG 291  Course objectives Inculcate in students an appreciation of the fact that the purpose of Engineering is to solve societal problems Draw a link between their chosen field of engineering and application of this field to the issues that c...

ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY CENG 291  Course objectives Inculcate in students an appreciation of the fact that the purpose of Engineering is to solve societal problems Draw a link between their chosen field of engineering and application of this field to the issues that confront the day to day lives of people 2  Course objectives Help students prepare for their professional lives and develop clarity in their understanding and thoughts about ethical issues and the practice in which they occur Develop applicable skills in communication, reasoning and reflection 3  Learning outcomes On completing the course, you should be able to: Identify problems in the society that could be solved using engineering principles Present the problems clearly as per Engineering principles and to communicate same Understand the importance of Engineering Code of Ethics and a professional ethical identity to carry forward in your working life 4  Learning outcomes Understand the nature of professional responsibility and be able to identify the ethical elements in decisions Address and resolve problems arising from questionable practice Develop critical thinking skills, professional judgement and understand practical difficulties of bringing about change 5  Course content Part A: Course work Identification of study community, preferably the community which students come from Identification of one development challenge facing the community Investigation of the nature, characteristics and scope of the development challenge Investigation of what chosen programme of study actually entails including the different applications of the chosen field 6  Course content Part B: Ethics in Engineering Unit I: Ethics and professionalism I.1 Introduction & Definition I.2 Engineering as a Profession I.3 Core Concepts in Engineering Ethics I.4 Professional Ethics Unit II: Moral reasoning and codes of ethics II.1 Elements and Tenets II.2 Code of Ethics for Engineers II.3 Fundamental Canons II.4 Limitations and Abuse of Codes II.5 Ethical Relativism and Justification 7  Course content Part B: Ethics in Engineering Unit III: GhIE Ethics & Disciplinary Procedures III.1 GhIE Code of Ethics III.2 Rule of Practice & Professional obligations III.3 Penalties & Disciplinary Procedures Unit IV: Moral frameworks & safety IV.1 Moral Reasoning & Choices IV.2 Resolving Ethical Dilemmas IV.3 Self Realization & Interests IV.4 Concept of Risk IV.5 Risk Assessment and Reduction 8  Course content Part B: Ethics in Engineering Unit V: Workplace responsibility and rights V.1 Teamwork V.2 Managers and Engineers V.3 Managing Conflict V.4 Confidentiality and Conflict of Interest V.5 Rights of Engineers and Whistle blowing Unit VI: Honesty and integrity VI.1 Truthfulness and Trustworthiness VI.2 Academic and Research Integrity VI.3 Expert Witnesses and Advisers 9  Course content Part B: Ethics in Engineering Unit I: Ethics and professionalism Unit II: Moral reasoning and codes of ethics Unit III: Moral frameworks Unit IV: Commitment to safety Unit V: Workplace responsibility and rights Unit VI: Honesty and integrity Unit VII: Engineering and technical progress Unit VIII: Codes of Ethics and disciplinary procedures of GhIE Unit IX: Canons of Engineering and codes of ethics of the professional disciplines 10  Course presentation Lectures Discussions Group work Presentations Assessments 11  Assessment Engineering in Society project – 50% Ethics in Engineering – 50 % End of semester exam (70 %) Classwork Assignments (30 %) Presentations 12 UNIT I: Ethics and professionalism Scope of Engineering Ethics Accepting and sharing responsibility Responsible professionals and ethical corporations 13 Why do you want to be an Engineer? What motivates you to excel? 14 What is the role of the engineer in society? Create products and processes to improve: Food production Shelter Energy Communication Transportation Health Protection against natural calamities Enhance the convenience and beauty of our everyday lives 15 Top 20 engineering achievements of the 20th century What are the top 20 engineering achievements of the 20th century? How have they impacted the lives of people in the 21st century? 16  17 Top 20 engineering achievements of the 20th century According to the National Academy of Engineering Electrification Automobiles Airplanes Water supply and distribution Electronics Radio and television Agricultural mechanization  18 Top 20 engineering achievements of the 20th century Computers Telephones Air-conditioning and refrigeration Highways Space crafts Internet Household appliances  19 Top 20 engineering achievements of the 20th century Imaging technologies in medicine and elsewhere Health technologies Petrochemical technologies Laser and fibre optics Nuclear technologies High performance materials  20 Overview of main themes in engineering ethics These themes constitute a normative perspective on engineering and on engineering ethics: Engineering as social experimentation Ethics and excellence: Moral values are embedded in engineering Personal commitment and meaning Promoting responsible conduct and preventing wrongdoing Myriad moral reasons generate ethical dilemmas Micro and macro issues Cautious optimism about technology  21 Overview of main issues Engineering as social experimentation Have there been any fails in Engineering?  22 Overview of main issues Engineering as social experimentation Engineering projects are social experiments that generate both new possibilities and risks and engineers share responsibility for creating benefits, preventing harm and pointing out dangers Spectacular triumphs only previously imagined in myth and science fiction are made possible by engineers. e.g. going to the moon Most technology however has double implications. It creates benefits while raising new moral challenges  23 Overview of main issues Engineering as social experimentation Very often technological development is double-edged and morally ambiguous; as projects create new possibilities they also generate new dangers Triumphs: Exploration of the moon and planets Tragedies: Explosions of space shuttles. eg explosion of space shuttle Columbia in 2003 killing 7 astronauts  24 Overview of main issues/themes Engineering as social experimentation Engineers need to: Accept and share responsibility for their work Exercise due care Imaginatively foresee hazards Conscientiously monitor their projects when possible Alert others of dangers to permit them give informed consent to risks  25 Overview of main issues Ethics and excellence: Moral values are embedded in engineering Moral values permeate all aspects of technological development and hence ethics and excellence in engineering go together Moral values are embedded in even the simplest engineering projects, even design of a chicken coop to increase chicken and egg production in a village  26 DISCUSSION You have been tasked to design a chicken coop for women living in a village in the Ashanti Region. Chicken rearing is to facilitate easy access to a good source of protein for their children so they do not develop kwashiorkor How would you go about executing the assignment? What considerations would you make?  27 Possible considerations Identify plausible building materials Decide between cages or one open area Design structures for strength and endurance Create safe access for the villagers, including ample head and shoulder room at entrances Safe floor for bare feet Ensure humane conditions for the chickens, including adequate space and ventilation  28 Possible considerations Comfort during climate changes Convenient delivery of food and water Protection from local predators that could dig under fences Improve cleaning procedures to minimise environmental damage Recycling chicken droppings as fertilizer  29 Overview of main issues/themes Ethics and excellence: Moral values are embedded in engineering Moral values are embedded at several junctures in engineering projects including: The basic standards of safety and efficiency The structure of technological corporations as communities of people engage in shared activities The character of engineers who spearhead technological progress Engineering as a profession combining advanced skill with commitment to the public good  30 Overview of main issues/themes Ethics and excellence: Moral values are embedded in engineering In Engineering excellence and ethics go together. Ethics involves the full range of moral values to which we aspire in guiding our endeavours and in structuring our relationships and communities  31 Overview of main issues Personal commitment and meaning: Motivation for excellence in engineering include: The desire for meaningful work Concern to make a living Care for other human beings The need to maintain self-respect These mutually reinforce one’s sense of personal responsibility for one’s work  32 Overview of main issues Personal commitment and meaning: Engineering is about products as well as people (engineers who stand in moral and monetary relationships with customers, colleagues, employers and the general public). Personal meaning and commitments matter in engineering ethics, along with principles of responsibility that are stated in codes of ethics. All Engineers are required to meet these responsibilities These requirements set a minimum though high standard of excellence Personal commitments of individual engineers need to be aimed at and integrated with these shared responsibilities  33 Overview main issues Promoting responsible conduct and preventing wrongdoing What are some of the pressures that sometimes lead engineers to cooperate in wrongdoing, rather than reporting it to the appropriate authorities?  34 Overview main issues Promoting responsible conduct and preventing wrongdoing Compliance issues are about making sure individuals comply with professional standards and avoid wrongdoing Procedures are needed in all corporations/ establishments to deter fraud, theft, bribery, incompetence and other forms of outright immorality Reasonable laws and government regulations, including penalties for reckless and negligent conduct are also essential. It is important therefore to examine pressures that sometimes lead Engineers to cooperate in wrongdoing rather than report them to appropriate authorities  35 Overview of main issues Promoting responsible conduct and preventing wrong-doing An important aspect of Engineering ethics therefore is preventing wrongdoing. There is the need for preventive ethics which is ethical reflection and action aimed at preventing moral harm and unnecessary ethical problems Promoting responsible conduct is more important than punishing wrongdoing The main emphasis in ethics should thus be supporting responsible conduct  36 Overview of main issues Myriad moral reasons generate ethical dilemmas Ethical dilemmas or moral dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons such as obligations, rights, ideals etc. come into conflict or in which the application of moral values are problematic, and it is not immediately obvious what should be done Ethical dilemmas arise in engineering as elsewhere because moral values are myriad and can conflict, requiring good judgement about how to reconcile and integrate them  37 Overview of main issues Micro and macro issues Engineering ethics should explore both micro and macro issues as these are often connected Micro issues concern the decisions made by individuals and companies Macro issues concern more global issues such as the directions in technology development the laws that should or should not be passed collective responsibilities of groups e.g. engineering professional societies and consumer groups  38 Overview of main issues Cautious optimism about technology The most general macro issues pertain to technology in its entirety, including its overall promise and perils A pessimists view of advanced technology Advanced technology is threatening and often out of control; focus may be on that it can cause pollution, deplete natural resources, cause mass death on highways, etc An optimists view: Highlights how technology greatly improves our lives e.g. water supply and distribution, electronics, telephones, etc.  39 Overview of main issues Cautious optimism about technology Sound technology is central to human progress and the engineers’ ingenuity is highly appreciated by the public However, the exuberant confidence and hope essential for technological progress needs to be accompanied by sober realism about dangers Technological development warrants cautious optimism – optimism with caution  40 Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of their professional duties (ABET: Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc.,)  41 What is engineering ethics? What is ethics? What is morality?  42 Morality Morality concerns respect for persons, both others and ourselves. It involves Being fair and just Meeting obligations and respecting rights Not causing unnecessary harm by dishonesty and cruelty or by excessive pride or self-confidence  43 Morality It involves ideals of character such as Integrity Gratitude Willingness to help others in severe distress Also implies minimizing suffering to animals and damage to the environment  44 What is engineering ethics? What is ethics? “Ethics” has several meanings. Ethics is synonymous with morality. Ethics refers to Moral values that are sound Actions that are morally required (right) or morally permissible (all right) Policies and laws that are desirable  45 What is engineering ethics? Ethics is also the study of morality It studies which actions, goals, principles, policies and laws are morally justified Engineering ethics therefore consists of The responsibilities and rights that should be endorsed by those engaged in engineering Desirable ideals and personal commitments in engineering  46 What is engineering ethics? Engineering ethics is therefore the study of the decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in engineering practice and research  47 Why study engineering ethics? Engineering ethics is important, in contributing to safe and useful technological products and giving meaning to engineers’ endeavours It is also complex and requires serious reflection throughout one’s career The direct aim of studying ethics is to increase the ability to deal effectively with moral complexity in engineering  48 Why study engineering ethics? It strengthens one's ability to reason clearly and carefully about moral questions The unifying goal is to increase moral autonomy: the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concern Improving the ability to reflect carefully on moral issues can be accomplished by improving various practical skills that help produce autonomous thought about moral issues.  49 Goals in studying engineering ethics Improving practical skills in the following (cognitive skills): Moral awareness Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering Cogent moral reasoning Comprehending, clarifying and assessing arguments on opposing sides of moral issues Moral coherence Forming consistent and comprehensive viewpoints upon a consideration of relevant facts  50 Goals in studying engineering ethics Moral imagination Discerning alternative responses to moral issues and receptivity to creative solutions for practical difficulties Moral communication Precision in the use of a common ethical language. This skill is needed to express and support one’s moral views adequately to others It is possible to have all these cognitive skills and still not act in a morally responsible way  51 Other practical skills Goals for moral commitment and responsible conduct: Moral reasonableness The willingness and ability to be morally reasonable Respect for persons Genuine concern for the well-being of others as well as oneself Tolerance of diversity Within a broad range, respect for ethnic and religious differences, and acceptance of reasonable differences in moral perspectives  52 Other skills Moral hope Enriched appreciation of the possibilities of using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts i.e. confidence in resolving moral conflicts Integrity Maintaining/preserving moral integrity, and integrating one’s professional life and personal convictions  Accepting and sharing responsibility What does it mean to be responsible? What are the meanings/types of responsibility? 53  54 Accepting and sharing responsibility Case study: Saving Citycorp Tower What should LeMessurier do? What are the implications of this action or inaction?  Accepting and sharing responsibility Upon identifying the structural danger in the Citicorp building, should LeMessurier have immediately notified the workers in the building, surrounding neighbours and the general public who might do business in the building? Or was it enough that he made sure evacuation plans were in place and that he was prepared to provide warning to people affected in the event of a major storm? Would you say LeMessurier was responsible? 55  56 Accepting and sharing responsibility Meanings of responsibility Moral responsibilities: obligations, accountability, conscientiousness, blame/praiseworthy Obligations Responsibilities are obligations. They are types of actions that are morally mandatory. Some obligations are incumbent on each of us such as to be honest, fair and decent Other obligations are role responsibilities acquired when one takes on special roles e.g. parents, employees, professionals, etc  57 Accepting and sharing responsibility Meanings of responsibility Accountable Being responsible means being accountable i.e. Having the general capacities for moral agency: Moral agency is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some notion of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions. Being answerable for meeting particular obligations i.e. liable to be held to account by other people in general or by specific individuals in positions of authority  58 Accepting and sharing responsibility Meanings of responsibility Wrongdoing takes 2 primary forms: Voluntary wrongdoing and Negligence Voluntary wrongdoing Knowing what is wrong and yet doing it (not coerced into doing wrong) Recklessness i.e. flagrant disregard for known risks and responsibilities, Weakness of will thereby giving in to temptation Failing to try hard enough  59 Accepting and sharing responsibility Meanings of responsibility Negligence This occurs when one unintentionally fails to exercise due care in meeting responsibilities. One may not know what he/she is doing but should have known e.g. shoddy engineering due to sheer incompetence  60 Accepting and sharing responsibility Meanings of responsibility Conscientious Diligently try to do the right thing and largely succeed in doing so even under difficult circumstances Blameworthy/Praiseworthy Where accountability for wrongdoing is an issue “responsible” becomes a synonym for blameworthy Where right conduct is an issue “responsible” is a synonym for praiseworthy  61 Accepting and sharing responsibility LeMessurier was responsible as a person and as an engineer: He met his responsibilities (obligations) He was responsible (accountable) for doing so He acted responsibly (conscientiously) He is admirable (praiseworthy)  62 Other forms of responsibility Causal responsibility: Simply being the cause of some event. If a child playing with matches causes a house to burn down, who is morally responsible for the incident? Job responsibility One’s assigned tasks at the place of employment. Professional responsibilities go beyond narrow job assignments Legal responsibility Whatever the law requires including legal obligations and accountability for meeting them These responsibilities can at times overlap with moral responsibilities  Sharing responsibility with corporations Ethical issues arise as a product develops from a mental concept to physical completion Engineers may encounter both moral and technical problems regarding e.g.: Variability of materials available to them Quality of work by coworkers at all levels Pressures imposed by time and the whims of the marketplace Relationships of authority within corporations 63  64 Engineering tasks and possible problems Conceptual design Blind to new concepts Violation of patents or trade secrets Product to be used illegally Goals; performance specifications Unrealistic assumptions Design depends on unavailable or untested materials  65 Engineering tasks and possible problems Preliminary analysis Uneven: overly detailed in designer’s area of expertise, marginal elsewhere Detailed analysis Uncritical use of handbook and computer programs based on unidentified methodologies Simulation, prototyping Testing of prototype done only under most favourable conditions or not completed  66 Engineering tasks and possible problems Design specifications Too tight for adjustments during manufacture and use Design changes not carefully checked Scheduling of tasks: Promise of unrealistic completion date based on insufficient allowance for unexpected events Purchasing Specifications written to favour one vendor Bribes, kickbacks Inadequate testing of purchased parts  67 Engineering tasks and possible problems Fabrication of parts Variable quality of materials and workmanship Bogus materials and components not detected Assembly/ construction Workplace safety Poor control of toxic wastes Quality control/ testing Not independent, but controlled by production manager. Hence tests rushed or results falsified  68 Engineering tasks and possible problems Installation and training Subcontracted out, inadequately supervised Safety measures and devices Reliance on overly complex, failure prone safety devices Maintenance, parts, repairs Inadequate supply of spare parts These problems in engineering may arise from shortcomings on the part of engineers, their supervisors, vendors or the operators of the product  69 Engineering tasks and possible problems The underlying causes of these problems include: Lack of vision Tunnel vision biased towards traditional pursuits thereby overlooking suitable alternatives. Also promoting acceptance at the expense of critical thinking (groupthink) The notion that there are safety engineers somewhere down the line to catch potential problems  70 Engineering tasks and possible problems Incompetence among engineers carrying out technical tasks Lack of time or lack of proper materials, due to poor management A silo mentality that keeps information compartmentalized rather than shared across different departments  71 Engineering tasks and possible problems Improper use or disposal of the product by an unwary owner or user Dishonesty in any activity and pressure by management to take shortcuts Inattention to how the product is performing after it is sold and when in use  72 Responsible professionals What is a profession? Responsible professionals 73  74 Responsible professionals Broadly, a profession is any occupation that provides a means by which to earn a living Within the context of this course, professions are those forms of work involving advanced expertise, independent judgement, self-regulation and concerted service to the public good as usually formulated in a code of ethics  75 Responsible professionals Advanced expertise Professions require sophisticated skills (knowing-how) and Theoretical knowledge (knowing-that) in exercising judgement that is not entirely routine or susceptible to mechanization  76 Responsible professionals Self-regulation Well-established societies of professionals are allowed by the public to play a major role in: setting standards for admission to the profession drafting codes of ethics enforcing standards of conduct and representing the profession before the public and government  77 Responsible professionals Public good The occupation serves some public good by making a concerted effort to maintain high ethical standards throughout the profession  Responsible professionals Corporations have responsibilities to all groups that have a vital stake in the corporation. These will include: employees suppliers customers local communities dealers the general public 78  79 Social and corporate responsibility Besides being concerned with employee relations and other organisational matters responsible corporations also strive to be good neighbours by: supporting schools cultural activities civic groups charities  80 Social and corporate responsibility Corporations also have responsibilities, just as individuals do. obligations accountability manifest virtue of responsibility blameworthy  81 Assignment (for class presentations) Michael Davis defines professions as follows: “A profession is a number of individuals in the same occupation voluntarily organized to earn a living by openly serving a certain moral idea in a morally permissible way beyond what law, market and everyday morality would otherwise require.” He argues that carpenters, barbers, porters and other groups who organize their work around a shared code of ethics should be recognized as professionals. Do you agree or disagree, and why? Can this issue be settled by reference to a dictionary?  82 UNIT II: Codes of ethics for engineers Essential roles of codes of ethics Fundamental canons Limitations of codes Abuse of codes Ethical relativism Justification of codes  83 Codes of Ethics Codes of ethics state the moral responsibilities of Engineers as seen by the profession, and as represented by a professional society They express the profession’s collective commitment to ethics They are very important not only in stressing engineer’s responsibilities but also the freedom to exercise them  Essential roles of codes of ethics Serving and protecting the Supporting responsible public professionals Providing guidance Contributing to education Offering inspiration Deterring wrongdoing Establishing shared standards Strengthening a profession’s image 84  85 Serving and protecting the public Engineering involves both advanced expertise that professionals but not the general public have and considerable dangers to a vulnerable public A code of ethics functions as a commitment by the profession as a whole that engineers will serve the public health, safety and welfare  86 Guidance Codes provide helpful guidance concerning the main obligations of engineers They identify primary responsibilities of the engineer This guidance is however general since codes need to be brief in order to be effective More specific directions on how to apply the codes may be given in supplementary statements or guidelines  87 Inspiration Codes provide a positive stimulus (motivation) for ethical conduct because they express a profession’s collective commitment to ethics They voice out what it means to be a member of a profession committed to responsible conduct in promoting the safety, health and welfare of the public, which together with more focused guidelines constitutes a collective commitment to the public good that inspires individuals to have similar aspirations  88 Shared standards The diversity of moral viewpoints among engineers makes it essential that professions establish explicit standards In this way the public is assured of a minimum standard of excellence on which it can depend Professionals are also provided with a fair playing field in competing for clients  89 Support for responsible professionals Codes give positive support to professionals seeking to act ethically Engineers can quote the code when under pressure to act unethically Codes can potentially serve as legal support for engineers criticized for living up to work-related professional obligations  90 Education and mutual understanding Codes can be used by professional societies and in the classroom to prompt discussion and reflect on moral issues They encourage shared understanding among professionals, the public and government organisations about the moral responsibilities of engineers  91 Deterrence and discipline Codes can serve as a formal basis for investigating unethical conduct. Where such investigation is possible a deterrent for immoral behavior is provided This may include suspension or expelling of members whose professional conduct has been proven unethical This is a powerful sanction especially combined with loss of respect from colleagues and the local community and can act as a deterrent to many  92 Contributing to professional image Codes can present a positive image to the public of an ethically committed profession This can promote greater powers for self-regulation for the profession and reduce the demand for more government regulation  Fundamental canons Canon 1 Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties Canon 2 Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence 93  Fundamental canons Canon 3 Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner Canon 4 Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest Canon 5 Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others 94  Fundamental canons Canon 6 Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honour, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession Canon 7 Engineering shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision 95  96 Abuse of codes When codes are not taken seriously within a profession: They become a window dressing and public cynicism is increased about the profession Abuse could also stiffle dissent within the profession  97 Abuse of codes Codes can also be abused when they are used to restrict honest moral effort on the part of individual engineers in an attempt to preserve the profession’s public image and protect status quo. Preoccupation with keeping a shiny public image may silence healthy dialogue and criticism Codes can also place unwarranted restraints on business dealings  98 Limitations of codes Codes cannot be a substitute for individual responsibility in dealing with dilemmas They offer general guidance and therefore are vague in some areas Uncertainties can arise when different entries in codes come into conflict with each other, eg. responsibilities to employers and to the wider public  99 Limitations of codes Proliferation of codes i.e. existence of codes for different professional engineering societies can give members the feeling that ethical conduct is more relative and variable than it really is Codes are not always the complete and final word. They can be flawed both by omission and commission  Reading assignment Read on the following: Ethical relativism Justification of codes Are the responsibilities stated in codes of ethics justified? When would you say a code is sound? 100  101 Class Exercise Compare and contrast the codes of ethics for the following : National Society of Professional Engineers (All classes) Ghana Institution of Engineering (All classes) American Society of Civil Engineers (Civil class) Identify the entries in the codes that relate to the roles of codes of ethics as discussed Select four specific points to discuss Do they state the same requirements with the same emphasis? List at least three examples of responsibilities that you believe would be incumbent on engineers even if written codes do not exist and explain why.  102 UNIT IV: Moral framework & safety Moral reasoning and choices Ethical dilemmas Ethical theories Concept of risk Risk assessment and reduction  103 Moral reasoning Reasonableness signifies the order, perspective, proportion which is achieved during deliberation, out of diversity of earlier incompatible preferences. Choice is reasonable when it coordinates, organizes, and functions each factor of the situation which gave rise to conflict, suspense and deliberation (John Dewey)  104 Moral reasoning Ethical dilemmas or moral dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the application of moral values are unclear, and it is not immediately obvious what should be done Ethical dilemmas arise in engineering as elsewhere because moral values are many and varied  105 Ethical dilemmas Ethical dilemmas may be divided into two broad categories Those that have solutions that are either right or wrong and Those that have two or more solutions  106 Ethical dilemmas- Right or wrong solution Right means that one course of action is obligatory and failing to do that action is unethical (immoral) In most instances a code of ethics specifies what is clearly required. Eg. Obey the law and heed engineering standards Do not offer or accept bribes Speak and write truthfully Maintain confidentiality, etc  107 Ethical dilemmas-Two or more solutions In this case, none of the solutions is mandatory but one of them has to be chosen. These solutions may be better or worse than others in some respects, but not necessarily in all respects  108 Steps in resolving ethical dilemmas Reasonable solutions to ethical dilemmas are clear, informed, and well-reasoned Clear Moral clarity - clarity about which moral values are at stake and how they pertain to the situation Conceptual clarity – precision in using the key concepts (ideas) applicable in the situation  109 Steps in resolving ethical dilemmas Informed Knowing and appreciating the implications of the available facts that are morally relevant. Also being aware of alternative courses of action and what they entail Well-reasoned Good judgement is exercised in integrating the relevant moral values and facts to arrive at a morally desirable solution  110 Steps in resolving ethical dilemmas 1. Moral clarity: Identify the relevant moral values 2. Conceptual clarity: Clarify key concepts 3. Informed about the facts: Obtain relevant information 4. Informed about the options: Consider all options 5. Well-reasoned: Make a reasonable decision  111 An engineer working in the environmental division of a computer manufacturing firm learns that her company might be discharging unlawful amounts of lead and arsenic into the city sewer. The city processes the sludge into a fertilizer used by local farmers. To ensure safety, it imposes restrictive laws on discharge of lead and arsenic. Preliminary investigations convince the engineer that the company should implement stronger pollution controls, but her manager insists the cost of doing so is prohibitive and that technically the company is in compliance with the law. She is also scheduled to appear before town officials to testify in the matter. The engineer is responsible for doing what promotes the success of her company, but she also has responsibilities to the local community that might be harmed by the effluent. In addition, she has responsibilities to her family and rights to pursue her career. What should she do?  112 Identify the relevant moral value The most basic step in confronting ethical dilemmas is to become aware of them.  113 Identify the relevant moral value This means: Identifying the moral values and reasons applicable in the situation e.g. obligations, duties, rights, goods, ideals, or other moral considerations, and bearing them in mind as further investigations are made Are you dealing with morally mandatory minimums in the form of strict duties? Or are you dealing with ideals that are desirable to pursue where possible but not strictly mandatory?  114 Identify the relevant moral value Talking with colleagues to help sharpen thinking about what is at stake in the situation Making reference to professional codes of ethics: this is the most useful resource in identifying ethical dilemmas  115 Identify the relevant moral value According to the codes of ethics the engineer may have a responsibility: To be honest: Issue statements or present information only in an objective and truthful manner To the employer: Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, avoiding conflicts of interest and never breaching confidentiality To the public and environment: Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and protect the environment in the performance of professional duties  116 Identify the relevant moral values In the case of the pollution under consideration Members most directly affected are the local farmers However the dangerous chemicals could affect more persons as lead and arsenic are drawn into the food chain Other moral considerations include duties to maintain personal and professional integrity and rights to pursue one’s career  117 Clarify key concepts Professionalism requires being a faithful agent of one’s employer Doing what one’s supervisor directs or doing what is good for the corporation in the long run? These may be different if supervisor is adopting a short term view that could harm the long-term interests of the corporation  118 Clarify key concepts In the case under consideration what does it mean to hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public? Does it pertain to all threats to public health or just serious threats, and what is a serious threat? Does being objective and truthful mean never lying or Does it mean revealing all pertinent facts and doing so in a way that gives preference to the interests of one’s employer over the needs of the public to be informed of hazards?  119 Obtain relevant information This means gathering information that is relevant in light of the applicable moral values In the case under consideration the engineer Needs to check and recheck her findings, perhaps asking colleagues for their perspectives Her corporation might be violating the law but is it actually doing so? Needs to know more about the possible harm caused by the minute quantities of lead and arsenic over time. How serious is it, and how likely is it to cause harm?  120 Consider all options Initially ethical dilemmas seem to force us into a two-way choice. In the case under consideration, either to bow to the supervisor’s orders or blow the whistle to the town authorities A closer look often reveals additional options. Write down the main options and sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure all options are considered What are the possible options?  121 Consider all options The chemical engineer might be able to suggest a new course of research that will improve the removal of lead and arsenic Or she might discover that the city laws are needlessly restrictive and should be slightly revised Perhaps she could convince her supervisor to be more open- minded about the situation, especially given the possible damage to the corporation’s image should they be found in violation of the law at a later time  122 Consider all options Unless an emergency develops, these and other steps should be attempted before informing authorities outside the corporation Informing authorities outside the corporation should be a desperate last resort as there are likely to be penalties for whistle blowing  123 Make a reasonable decision Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgement by weighing all the relevant moral reasons and facts If there is no ideal solution, settle on a satisfactory one  124 Individual assignment You are working at an industrial waste treatment facility. Your supervisor asks you to dump a toxic substance down the drain. What should you do? How would you go about making a decision?  125 What should you do if your supervisor asks you to dump a toxic substance down the drain? You may need to clarify the following: Is the substance regulated by law? What does the law say? How serious is the hazard in dumping the waste? Etc. Take a decision to Obey or Disobey the supervisor???  126 What should you do if your supervisor asks you to dump a toxic substance down the drain? Much more is however required There is the need to design a course of action Figure out what should be done with the supervisor’s order  Figure out what should be done with the supervisor’s order Ignore? What are the likely consequences of Refuse? using those channels Report to someone in the company ? Where to find out about those consequences Report to the EPA? What to do with the toxic waste in the Do something else altogether? meantime? Is there any place to go to for advice Etc. about options in such a situation? 127  128 Problem from the National Society for Professional Engineers (NSPE)) Engineer A, an environmental engineer is retained by a major industrial owner to examine certain lands adjacent to an abandoned industrial facility formerly owned and operated by the owner. The owner’s attorney, Attorney X, requests that as a condition of the retention agreement that Engineer A sign a secrecy provision whereby Engineer A would agree not to disclose any data, findings, conclusions or other information relating to his examination of the owner’s land to any other party unless ordered by a court. Engineer A signs the secrecy provision. What is the ethical problem?  129 Although the NSPE code does not explicitly forbid signing the secrecy provision, it requires that Engineers hold paramount the public safety and if their judgement should be overruled in matters of public safety, to notify proper authorities This implies Engineer A should not sign a secrecy provision that precludes acting according to the code However, there are also provisions in code requiring confidentiality about clients in the course of providing professional services  130 Nevertheless, the paramount clause requires that the public safety, health, and welfare be an overriding consideration What are the conflicting moral values in this case? According to the NSPE, the solution involves one mandatory action, which is to refrain from signing the agreement  131 Another ethical dilemma arises because the engineer has already signed the secrecy agreement Therefore, a commitment or an obligation to keep it is has been created However, the paramount responsibility for safety and welfare of the public still applies and therefore the Engineer has the obligation to notify the appropriate authorities  132 Making moral choices If dangers to the public are discovered and the client refuses to remedy them, the engineer would be obliged to inform the appropriate authorities. Should the engineer go back to the client to have the secrecy provision revoked? What are the implications of doing that?  133 Making moral choices If the client refuses, should the engineer break the contract? This could have legal consequences. Or should the engineer simply hope that no problems will arise and continue with his/her contract work, postponing hard decisions till later?  134 Making moral choices Moral dilemmas comprise the most difficult occasions for moral reasoning They however constitute a relatively small percentage of moral choices (decisions involving moral values) Most moral choices are routine and straight forward Choices involving moral values occur in routine decisions during technological development because designs can cause unacceptable risks and other problems  135 Example: Identify the moral values in the design of aluminum beverage cans with stay on tab openers Aluminum cans designed to replace heavy and expensive tin cans The first aluminum cans were opened with separate openers. Implications Inconvenience if you do not have an opener  136 Example: Design of aluminum beverage cans with stay on tab openers Designed with small lever attached to the can, but which was removed as the can opened. Implications Lip and nose injuries from jagged edges after tab was removed Billions of discarded pull tabs causing pollution, foot injuries, injuries to fish and infants who ingested them  137 Example: Design of aluminum beverage cans with stay on tab openers Dilemma: How to balance usefulness to consumers with protection of the environment Solution: Invention of stay-attached opener  138 Example: Design of aluminum beverage cans with stay on tab openers What moral values can you identify in the design of the can?  139 Moral values Human safety: This is rooted directly in the moral worth of human beings Safety Issues/considerations Slight cuts to lips and noses from poorly designed openers Minor injuries to feet in recreational areas like beaches These injuries though minor can cause infection  140 Moral values Human safety: Various kinds of poisoning might occur unless all materials are tested under a range of conditions Potential industrial accidents during manufacture Extensive testing needed to ensure that exploding cans would not cause automobile accidents when drivers open the cans  141 Moral values Concern for the environment Issues/considerations Billions of detached can openers raised the level of hazards to people walking with bare feet Injuries to fish and other wildlife These could have indirect moral harm due to further impacts on human beings Direct moral harm to creatures recognized as having inherent worth  142 Moral values Useful and convenience Issues/considerations Convenient access to pleasant tasting liquid Pleasures bear on human happiness and well-being Aesthetics pertaining to shape and appearance of cans have some relevance to satisfying human needs  143 Economic benefits Issues/considerations Money matters morally Jobs provide livelihood for workers and their families that make possible the material goods that contribute to survival and happiness  144 Moral values Values of safety, environmental protection, usefulness and monetary were all relevant throughout the development of the aluminum can and illustrate how moral values permeate engineering practice  145 Group work  146 Case 1 (Group 1) An inspector discovers faulty construction equipment and applies a violation tag, preventing its continued use. The inspector’s supervisor, a construction manager, views the case as a minor infraction of safety regulations and orders the tag removed so the project will not be delayed. What should the inspector do?  147 Case 2 (Group 3) A software engineer discovers that a colleague has been downloading restricted files that contain trade secrets about a new product that the colleague is not personally involved with. He knows the colleague has been having financial problems, and he fears the colleague is planning to sell the secrets or perhaps leave the company and use them in starting his own company. Company policy requires him to inform his supervisor, but the colleague is a close friend. Should he first talk with the friend about what he is doing, or should he immediately inform his supervisor?  148 Case 3 (Group 2) A structural engineer is volunteering as a mentor for a high school team competing in a national contest to build a model of a cantilevered structure. The plan was to help the students on weekends for at most 8 to 10 hours. As the national competition nears, the structure collapses. He wants to help the dispirited students and believes his mentoring commitment requires he do more. But doing so would involve additional evening work that could potentially harm his work, if not his family.  149 Case 4 (Group 4) During an investigation of a bridge collapse, Engineer A investigates another similar bridge, and finds it only marginally safe. He contacts the governmental agency responsible for the bridge and informs them of his concern for the safety of the structure. He is told that the agency is aware of this situation, and has planned to provide in next year’s budget for its repair. Until then, the bridge must remain open to traffic. Without this bridge, emergency vehicles such as police and fire apparatus would have to use an alternate route which would increase their response time by about 20 minutes. Engineer A is thanked for his concern and asked to say nothing about the condition of the bridge. The agency is confident that the bridge will be safe.  150 With regard to each of these cases answer the following questions What is the moral dilemma(s)? In stating the dilemma, make explicit the competing moral reasons involved, e.g. rights, responsibilities, duties, good consequences, or admirable features of character (virtues). Are there any concepts (ideas) involved in dealing with the moral issues that would be useful to clarify? What factual inquiries do you think might be needed in making a reliable judgement about the case? What are the options you see available for solving the dilemmas? Which of these options is required (obligatory, all things considered) or permissible (all right)?  151 Case 5 (All groups) A cafeteria in an office building has comfortable tables and chairs, indeed too comfortable: they invite people to linger longer than the management desires. You are asked to design uncomfortable ones, to discourage such lingering. (a) Is there a moral dilemma here? (b) Are there moral choices involved in whether and how to design the new furniture?  152 Moral Frameworks Ethical theories Utilitarianism Rights ethics Duty ethics Virtue ethics Self-realization ethics  153 Ethical theories An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes and guides moral reflection It provides a framework for making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas. It also grounds the requirements in engineering codes of ethics by reference to broader moral principles  154 Ethical theories Ethical theories include: Utilitarianism: we have to maximize the overall good taking into equal account all those affected by our actions Rights ethics: respect human rights Duty ethics: respect individuals’ autonomy Virtue ethics: good character is central to morality Self-realization ethics: emphasizes the moral significance of self-fulfilment  155 Utilitarianism This is the view that we need to produce the most good for most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected. The standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequence Utilitarian analysis considers costs and benefits to everyone affected by a project or proposal It weighs the interest of each person affected equally, giving no preference to members of a corporation and adopts a long-term view  156 Utilitarianism Main versions of utilitarianism are: Rule utilitarianism Act utilitarianism  157 Rule-utilitarianism This is the view that right actions are those required by rules that produce the most good for the most people Rules have to be heeded  158 Act-utilitarianism This focuses on each situation and the alternative actions possible in the situation A particular action is right if it is likely to produce the most good for the most people in a given situation compared to alternative choices that might be made Rules may be broken whenever doing so will produce the most good in a specific situation  159 Some problems with Act-utilitarianism It permits some actions that are clearly immoral Eg. Suppose stealing an old computer, which is scheduled for replacement, from an employer will benefit you immensely and cause only a tiny bit of harm to the employer and others The theft is unethical so act-utilitarianism seems to justify wrong doing Rule-utilitarianism however expresses this moral knowledge by demonstrating that overall good is promoted when engineers heed the principle: Act as faithful agents or trustees of employers  160 Some problems with Act-utilitarianism It seems to permit injustice by promoting social good at the expense of individuals Eg. In a particular situation more good is promoted by keeping the public ignorant about serious dangers such as a hidden fault in a car or building Or it will improve company morale if several disliked engineers are fired after being blamed for mistakes they did not make Doing so is unfair but the overall good is promoted Rule-utilitarianism: Corporations should inform the public of dangers; Discipline or punish only the guilty  161 Some problems with Act-Utilitaranism It seems to require too much of people Eg. Promoting the overall good by foregoing virtually all luxuries and redirecting one’s career in order to give to a worthy cause to the degree of saints Rule-utilitarianism: relatively wealthy people should increase their philanthropic giving according to the rule: Give to help others, while keeping sufficient resources for the security and reasonable luxuries for oneself and one’s family  162 Theories of Good According to utilitarianism, justified actions or rules should maximize good consequences What is the standard for good consequences? What is intrinsic good i.e. good by itself apart from its consequences? Some utilitarians consider pleasure to be the only intrinsic good  163 Theories of Good According to Mill happiness is the only intrinsic good Happiness is: A life rich in pleasures mixed with some inevitable pains plus A pattern of activities that one can affirm as valuable overall as the way one wants one’s life to be The happiest life however is one rich in higher pleasures  164 Theories of good What is pleasure? What are higher pleasures?  Theories of good Pleasures derived from Love Creative accomplishment Friendship Appreciation of beauty Intellectual inquiry (mental pleasures) Are inherently better than bodily (physical) pleasures derived from activities such as eating, exercise, sex, etc. Mill however suggests that one pleasure is higher than another if it is favoured by the majority of people who have experienced both 165  166 Theories of good Brandt argues that things like love and creativity are good because they satisfy rational desires Rational desires are those that we can affirm after fully examining them in light of all relevant information about the world and our own deepest needs  167 Theories of good Mill and Brandt try to use an objective standard on what is good Other utilitarians especially economists adopt a “preference theory” What is good is what individuals prefer as manifested in their choices in the market place In this version utilitarianism becomes the view that right actions produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of people affected  168 Class exercise Apply act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism in resolving the following moral problems. Do the two versions of utilitarianism lead to the same or different answers to the problems?  169 Class exercise George had a bad reaction to an illegal drug he accepted from friends at a party. He calls in sick the day after and when he returns to work the following day he looks ill. His supervisor asks him why he is not feeling well. Is it morally permissible for George to lie by telling his supervisor that he had a bad reaction to some medicine his doctor prescribed for him?  170 Jilian was aware of a recent company memo reminding employees that office supplies were for use at work only. Yet she knew that most of the other engineers in her division thought nothing about occasionally taking home notepads, pens, computer disks and other office incidentals. Her 8- year-old daughter had asked her for a company inscribed ledger like the one she saw her carrying. The ledger costs less than 20 dalasis and Jilian recalls that she has probably used that much from her stationery supplies during the past year for work purposes. Is it all right for her to take home a ledger for her daughter without asking her supervisor for permission?  171 Right ethics and duty ethics Rights ethics regards human rights as fundamental Duty ethics regards duties of respect for autonomy as fundamental Morality is viewed as being about respecting the inherent dignity and worth of individuals as they exercise their liberty  172 Human rights Rights enter into engineering in many ways Holding paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public can be interpreted as having respect for the public’s: Rights to life (by producing safe products) Rights to privacy Rights not to be injured (by dangerous products) Rights to receive benefits through fair and honest exchanges in a free marketplace  173 Human rights The basic right to liberty implies a right to give informed consent to the risks accompanying technological products Employers have rights to faithful service from employees Employees have rights to reciprocal fair and respectful treatment from employers  174 Versions of rights ethics Human rights can come in two forms: Liberty rights Welfare rights  175 Versions of rights ethics Liberty rights These are rights to exercise one’s liberty and they place duties on people not to interfere with one’s freedom Liberty rights are also called negative rights because of the “not” Welfare rights These are rights to benefits needed for a decent human life, when one cannot earn those benefits and when the community has them available Welfare rights are sometimes called positive rights  176 Versions of rights ethics The first version of rights ethics conceives human rights as intimately related to communities of people It argues that having moral rights presupposes the capacity to show concern for others and to be accountable within a moral community It allows for more positive welfare rights to community benefits needed to live a minimally decent human life  177 Versions of rights ethics The second version of rights ethics denies that there are welfare human rights Libertarians believe that only liberty rights exist. There are no welfare rights  178 Versions of rights ethics It is believed that the three most basic human rights are Rights to life Rights to liberty and Rights to property Rights are viewed primarily as entitlements that prevent other people from meddling in one’s life  179 Special moral rights These are rights held by particular individuals rather than by every human being. Eg. engineers and their employers have special moral rights that arise from their respective roles and contracts they make with each other  180 Special moral rights Contracts and other types of promises create special rights because people have human rights to liberty that are violated when the understandings and commitments are violated E.g. When the public purchases a product there is an implicit contract based in an implicit understanding that the products will be safe and useful  181 Duty ethics Duty ethics regards duties of respect for autonomy as fundamental Right actions are those required by duties to respect the liberty or autonomy (self-determination) of individuals Both duty ethics and rights ethics emphasize respect for individual’s dignity and worth in contrast with utilitarian's emphasis on the general good  Duty ethics Some important duties are: Don’t kill Keep your promise Don’t cause pain Don’t cheat Don’t disable Obey the law Don’t deprive of freedom Do your duty (referring to Don’t deprive of pleasure work, family and other special responsibilities) Don’t deceive 182  183 Duty ethics Immorality occurs when we merely use others, reducing them to mere means to our ends, treating them as mere objects to gratify our needs Violent acts such as murder, rape and torture are obvious ways of treating people as mere objects serving our own purposes We also fail to respect persons if we do not provide support for them when they are in desperate need and we can help them at little inconvenience to ourselves  184 Duty ethics We also have duties to ourselves e.g. Not to commit suicide, which would bring an end to a valuable life To develop our talents, as part of unfolding our rational natures To avoid harmful drugs that undermine our ability to exercise our rationality  185 Prima facie duties Moral reasons are many and varied and given the complexity of human life, invariably come into conflict, creating moral dilemmas Contemporary duty ethicists recognize that many moral dilemmas can be resolved by recognizing some valid exceptions to simple principles of duty Most duties have some justified exceptions Prima facie duties are duties that have some permissible exceptions when they conflict with more pressing duties  186 Virtue ethics This emphasizes character more than rights and rules Character is a pattern of virtues and vices in an individual Virtues are desirable habits or tendencies in action, commitment, motive, attitude, emotion, ways of reasoning and ways of relating to others Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) defined moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire and attitude Vices are morally undesirable habits or tendencies  Virtue ethics Specific virtues in both engineering and everyday life include: Vices include: Competence Incompetence Honesty Dishonesty Courage Cowardice Fairness Unfairness Loyalty Disloyalty Humility Arrogance 187  188 Virtues in engineering The most comprehensive virtue of engineers is responsible professionalism. This implies four (overlapping) categories of virtues Public-spirited virtues (Public well-being) Proficiency virtues (Professional competence) Teamwork virtues (Cooperative practices) Self-governance virtues (Personal integrity)  189 Public-spirited virtues These focus on the good of clients and the wider public. The minimum virtue is nonmaleficence, which is the tendency not to harm others intentionally Engineering codes of ethics also call for beneficence, which is preventing or removing harm to others and more positively promoting public safety, health and welfare  190 Public-spirited virtues Also important is a sense of community manifested in faith and hope in the prospects for meaningful life within professional and public communities Generosity, which means going beyond the minimum requirements in helping others Justice within corporations, government and economic practices is also an essential virtue in the profession of engineering  191 Proficiency virtues These are virtues of mastery of one’s profession, in particular mastery of the technical skills that characterize good engineering practice The most general proficiency virtue is competence i.e. being well prepared for the jobs one undertakes Others are: Diligence i.e. alertness to dangers and careful attention to detail in performing tasks Creativity, which is especially desirable within a rapidly changing technological society  192 Teamwork virtues These virtues are important in enabling professionals work successfully with other people. They include: Collegiality Cooperativeness Loyalty Respect for legitimate authority Leadership qualities and the ability to motivate others to meet valuable goals  193 Self-governance virtues These are necessary in exercising moral responsibility Some of these virtues centre on moral understanding and perception e.g. self-understanding and good moral judgement (practical wisdom)  194 Self-governance virtues Others centre on commitment and putting understanding into action e.g. Courage Self-discipline Perseverance Fidelity to commitments Self-respect Integrity  195 Self-governance virtues Honesty cuts across both categories of self governance virtues This is because honesty implies truthfulness in speech and belief and trustworthiness in commitments  Reading assignment Virtue ethics takes alternative forms especially in the particular virtues emphasized and their roles in morally good lives Samuel Florman: Competence and conscientiousness In his view the essence of engineering ethics is best captured by the word conscientiousness Florman therefore identifies the essential virtue of an engineer as conscientiousness Competence and loyalty are the two virtues Florman emphasizes Aristotle: Community and the golden mean Aristotle defines moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire and attitude Virtues are tendencies to find the golden mean between extremes of too much (excess) and too little (deficiency) with regard to a particular aspect of our lives 196  197 Self-realization and self-interest Self-realization ethics gives greater prominence to self-interest and to personal commitments that individuals develop There are two versions depending on how the self (the person) is conceived The self is conceived in a highly individualistic manner (Ethical egoism) The self to be realized is understood in terms of a caring relationship and communities  198 Ethical egoism This theory says that each of us ought always and only to promote our own self-interest Self interest is understood as long term and enlightened well- being (good, happiness) rather than a narrow short-sighted pursuit of immediate pleasures that leaves one frustrated or damaged in the long run  199 Ethical egoism Virtues exercised on behalf of oneself include Self-respect Honesty with oneself Courage and excellence in pursuing personal projects Respect for others provided it tends to promote one’s endeavours  200 Ethical egoism By this theory engineers should think first and last about what is beneficial to themselves This is however at variance with the obligation for engineers to hold paramount the public health, safety and welfare  201 Motives of Engineers Engineers are strongly motivated by self-interest but are also capable of responding to moral reasons in their own rights Motives of professionals can be grouped into 3 categories Proficiency Compensation Moral motives  202 Proficiency motives These center on excellence in meeting technical standards of a profession together with related aesthetic values of beauty Undergraduate curriculum in Engineering is generally acknowledged to be more rigorous and more difficult than the majority of academic disciplines As such students are attracted to Engineering partly because of the challenge it offers to intelligent people Typically students enter Engineering due to a desire for interesting and challenging work  203 Compensation motives These are for social rewards such as: Income Power Recognition Job or career stability  204 Compensation motives In addition, most people seek money for reasons such as to benefit family members or to help others in need Financial independence also prevents one from becoming a burden on others  205 Moral motives These include the desires to meet one’s responsibilities and to respect the rights of others Such motives of moral respect and caring involve affirming that others have inherent moral worth Moral concern also involves maintaining self-respect and integrity  206 Self-realization and personal commitments A more community-oriented version of self-realization ethics says that: Each individual ought to pursue self-realization But emphasizes the importance of caring relationships and communities in understanding self-realization and in defining the self to be fulfilled.  207 Self-realization and personal commitments On one hand it emphasizes that we are social beings whose identities and meaning are linked to the communities in which we participate On the other hand, self-realization ethics points to the commitments individuals make in their work as well as personal lives Self-realization and personal commitments Personal commitments are commitments that are not incumbent on every member of a profession and include: Humanitarian Aesthetic Environmental Supererogatory (actions that Religious go beyond the call of duty) Political Family commitments 208 Commitment to safety Safety and risks Assessing and reducing risk 209  Safety and risks Safe products and services are required to ensure that the public is not threatened by potential harm Safety may however have to be paid for What is safe enough for one person may be unsafe for another depending on perceptions of what is safe safe or different predispositions to harm 210  Safety and risks Absolute safety in the senses of Entirely risk-free activities and products or A degree of safety that satisfies all individuals or groups under all conditions, is neither attainable nor affordable 211  Concept of safety How would you define safety or a safe thing? When would you say a thing is not safe? 212  The concept of safety What is your opinion of William W. Lawrence’s definition of safety? He says: A thing is safe if its risks are judged to be acceptable One could underestimate or overestimate risk, or make no judgement about the risk 213  The concept of safety There should be at least some objective point of reference besides oneself that that allows us to decide whether our judgements about safety of right after settling on what constitutes an acceptable risk One option is simply to equate safety with the absence of risk However little in life and nothing in Engineering is free of risks. 214  The concept of safety A modified version of Lowrance’s definition, taking into account both subjectivity and objectivity would be: A thing is safe if, were its risks fully known, those risks would be judged acceptable by a reasonable person in light of their settled value principles That thing could be a product, a service, institutional processes, and disaster protection Safety is often thought of in terms of degrees and comparisons. Eg fairly safe or relatively safe in comparison with similar things 215  Risks What is a risk? 216  Risks A thing is not safe if it exposes one to unacceptable risk A risk is the potential that something unwanted and harmful may occur We take a risk when we undertake something or use a product that is not safe Risk is a broad concept covering many different types of unwanted occurrences 217  Risks With regards to technology, risks could include dangers of Bodily harm Economic loss Environmental degradation 218  Risks These may be caused by Delayed job completion Faulty products or systems Economically or environmentally injurious solutions to technological problems Good engineering practice is concerned with safety Public concern about technological risks has increased as technology’s influence on society has grown 219  Acceptability of risk A risk is acceptable when those affected are generally no longer (or not) apprehensive of it Apprehensiveness depends to a large extent on how the risk is perceived 220  Acceptability of risk Apprehensiveness is influenced by factors such as the following: Whether the risk is accepted voluntarily The effects of knowledge on how the probabilities of harm (or benefit) are known or perceived If the risks are job-related or other pressures exist that cause people to be aware of or overlook the risks 221  Acceptability of risk Whether the effects of a risky activity or situation are immediately noticeable or are close at hand Whether the potential victims are identifiable beforehand 222  Voluntarism and control Consider the case of riding motorcycles over a rough terrain for amusement. Over 5 yrs this has killed 900 people and injured 300000, over half of which have been children under 16. Consider living near a chemical plant where you are exposed to air pollution and some dangerous chemicals in the ground. Official inspectors however say there is nothing to worry about In which case would you be more apprehensive? 223  Voluntarism and control We would be much less apprehensive about the risks to which we expose ourselves voluntarily that those to which we are exposed involuntarily Connected with the notion of voluntarism is the matter of control. Even though one may be aware of accident rates with the bikes one may still take risks because of the belief that the hazards are under ones control 224 Effects of information on risk assessments The way in which information necessary for decision making is presented can greatly influence how risks are perceived One may not use seat belts in a car because one thinks that the probability of having an accident on any one trip is infinitesimally small 225 Effects of information on risk assessments Assuming however that one was told that in the course of 50 yrs of driving, at 800 trips every year, there is a probability of 1 in 3 that one will receive at least one disabling injury, one’s seat belt habits and attitude towards laws requiring the use of seat belts would change 226 Effects of information on risk assessments Group 1: Information on strategies for combating COVID 19 Gambia is preparing for the outbreak of another variant of COVID 19 which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programmes, A and B, to combat the disease have been proposed If programme A is adopted 200 people will be saved If programme B is adopted there is a 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved and 2/3 probability that no people will be saved Which of the two programmes would you favour? 227 Effects of information on risk assessments Group 2: Information on strategies for combating COVID 19 Gambia is preparing for the outbreak of another variant of COVID 19 which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programmes, C and D, to combat the disease have been proposed If programme C is adopted 400 people will die If programme D is adopted there is a 1/3 probability that nobody will die and 2/3 probability that 600 people will die. Which of the two programmes would you favour? 228 Effects of information on risk assessments Options perceived as yielding firm gains will tend to be preferred over those from which gains are perceived as risk Options emphasizing firm losses losses tend to be avoided in favour of those whose chances of success are perceived as probable People tend to be more willing to take risks in order to avoid perceived firm losses than they are to win only possible gains 229  Job-related risks Workers take risks on their jobs. Even though workers taking risks at work are in a sense voluntary because they can refuse to subject themselves to such risks sometimes they have little option since that is the only job available to them. All reports from the workplace regarding unsafe or health impairing conditions of any kind merit serious attention by engineers whether specific rules are in place or not 230  231 Unit V: Workplace responsibilities and rights Teamwork Managing conflict Confidentiality and conflict of interest Rights of engineers Whistle blowing  232 Teamwork- loyalty and collegiality Loyalty to an employer can mean two things: Agency-loyalty Attitude-loyalty  233 Agency-loyalty This is acting to fulfil one’s contractual duties to an employer These duties are specified in terms of the particular tasks for which one is paid as well as the more general activities of cooperating with colleagues and following legitimate authority within the corporation Agency-loyalty is entirely a matter of actions such as doing one’s job and not stealing from one’s employer, regardless of the motives for it Agency-loyalty to employers is an obligation  234 Attitude-loyalty This has to do with attitudes, emotions, and a sense of personal identity as it does with actions It implies seeking to meet one’s moral duties to a group or organisation willingly, with personal attachment and affirmation and with reasonable degree of trust People who do their work grudgingly or spitefully are not loyal in this sense, even though they may adequately perform all their work responsibilities and hence manifest agency-loyalty Attitude-loyalty is often a virtue and not strictly an obligation  235 Collegiality Collegiality is a virtue defining the teamwork essential for pursuing shared goals Collegiality is a kind of connectedness grounded in respect for professional expertise and in a commitment to the goals and values of the profession It therefore includes a disposition to support and cooperate with one’s colleagues  236 Central elements of collegiality Respect for colleagues, valuing their professional expertise and their devotion to the social goods promoted by the profession Commitment, in the sense of sharing a devotion to the moral ideals inherent in one’s profession Connectedness, or awareness of participating in cooperative projects based on shared commitments and mutual support  237 Managing conflict Conflict resolution aimed at maintaining teamwork is a responsibility of all Engineers Within technological corporations, successful management means evoking the fullest contribution of employees The shared task is to create climates in which conflicts are addressed constructively  238 Managing conflict This requires the contribution of all Engineers in the establishment The types and relative intensity of conflicts among persons differ according to the level of management as well as the corporate setting  239 Common conflicts confronted by engineering project managers (ranked in order of priority and overall intensity) Conflicts over schedules, especially where managers must rely on support departments over which the manager has little control Conflicts over which projects and departments are most important to the organisation at a given time Conflicts over personnel resources made available for projects Conflicts over technical issues, in particular over alternative ways to solve a technical problem within costs, schedule, and performance objectives  240 Common conflicts Conflicts over administrative procedures, such as the extent of the manager’s authority, accountability procedures and reviews, and administrative support Personality conflicts Conflicts over costs  241 Techniques for conflict resolution People: Separate the people from the problem Interests: Focus on interests, not positions Options: Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do Criteria: Insist that the result (of conflict resolution) be based on some objective standard  242 Separating the people from the problem The personal aspect of conflicts should be distinguished from the problem in order to be able to deal better with both Even in cases where the people are the problem (eg. in personality clashes), the focus should still be on the problem arising from behaviour and not on blaming people for their character All conflicts involve persons who must be respected  243 Separating the people from the problem The problem must be understood from the point of view of the parties Communicate with the parties as clearly and honest