Psychology Exam Study Notes PDF

Psychology Exam Study Notes PSYC1004A Basic Principles of Individual and Group Psychology BLOCK 3  Week 1 Defining Development and Key Concepts 1. Definition of Development: o Development: Sequence of age-related ch...

Psychology Exam Study Notes PSYC1004A Basic Principles of Individual and Group Psychology BLOCK 3  Week 1 Defining Development and Key Concepts 1. Definition of Development: o Development: Sequence of age-related changes from conception to death, involving predictable, age-related transitions. o Developmental Psychology: Study of lifespan changes. 2. Types of Development: o Physical, Cognitive, and Emotional Development across stages from conception to late adulthood. 3. Contexts of Development: o Biological (e.g., health, physical growth), Cultural (e.g., beliefs, values), Social (e.g., family, friends), Historical (e.g., time period), Economic (e.g., financial circumstances). 4. South African Context: o Emphasizes socio-political and socio-historical factors impacting development, such as poverty, malnutrition, and cycles of deprivation from apartheid’s legacy. Core Concepts in Developmental Psychology 1. Stability vs. Change: o Examines whether development is stable or changes over time. Early theorists (e.g., Freud, Piaget) believed early experiences shaped personality, while later theorists (e.g., Erikson, Vygotsky) argue for continuous change influenced by interactions with the environment. 2. Nature vs. Nurture: o Nature: Genetic determinism (biological predispositions). o Nurture: Environmental determinism (influences from experiences and cultural factors). o Current view: Complex interactions between both, where neither plays an equal role universally. 3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity: o Continuity: Gradual changes (e.g., height, memory development). o Discontinuity: Abrupt, stage-based changes (e.g., cognitive shifts from infant to toddler). 4. Ontology vs. Phylogeny: o Ontology: Individual development (specific child). o Phylogeny: Group-based development (wider population). 5. Normative vs. Non-Normative Development: o Normative: Shared experiences (e.g., puberty).  o Non-Normative: Unique, individual experiences (e.g., death of a parent at a young age). Prenatal Development Stages and Risks 1. Stages: o Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks): Rapid cell division, migration to the uterus, and implantation. o Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks): Vital organ formation; high vulnerability. o Foetal Stage (9 weeks to birth): Sensory development, sex organ formation, and brain development. 2. Risks to Prenatal Development: o Teratogens: Substances harmful to the foetus (e.g., drugs, alcohol). o Maternal Factors: Nutrition, stress, age, substance use (e.g., Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, impacting IQ, motor skills, and behaviour). o Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty and limited access to healthcare affect maternal and foetal health. Neonatal Development (First 2–4 Weeks) 1. Sensory Development: o Newborns prefer faces and patterned stimuli, respond to high-contrast visuals, and distinguish human speech from other sounds. 2. Motor Development: o Follows the Cephalocaudal Trend (head-to-foot) and Proximodorsal Trend (centre-outward). o Gross Motor Skills: Large body movements (e.g., walking). o Fine Motor Skills: Smaller movements (e.g., cutting with scissors). 3. Cognitive Development: o Initial cognitive abilities set the foundation for understanding the world, with developmental norms marking milestone ages for cognitive abilities. 4. Emotional Development: o Temperament: Consistent emotional responses, categorised as Easy, Difficult, or Slow-to-Warm-Up. o Attachment: Strong emotional bonds, primarily with caregivers, influence later social interactions. Attachment and Parenting 1. Attachment Theories: o Bowlby’s Theory: Attachment as an evolutionary mechanism for infant survival, with stages (signalling, sociability, attachment, and reciprocal relationships). o Ainsworth’s Patterns: Secure, Anxious-Ambivalent, Avoidant, and Disorganized attachments assessed through the “Strange Situation” procedure. 2. Cultural Impact on Attachment: o Cultural factors influence attachment styles, with South African studies showing lower levels of anxious-ambivalent attachment compared to Western norms due to parenting styles and socio-economic conditions. 3. Parenting Styles: o Authoritarian: High expectations, strict rules, and less warmth may lead to anxious, withdrawn children. o Permissive: High warmth, few demands; associated with impulsive behaviour. o Authoritative: Balanced structure and warmth; encourages self-reliance and competence. Early Childhood Development (ECD) and Middle Childhood 1. Early Childhood Development (ECD): o Importance: Crucial for brain development and school readiness. o ECD Programs: Address academic readiness and social skills and reduce failure rates. o Play: Central role in cognitive and social development. 2. Physical Development in Middle Childhood (Ages 6-Puberty): o Gains in strength, coordination, and motor skills. o Brain growth spurt, particularly in the frontal lobes, is crucial for planning and organising thoughts and actions. 3. Self-Concept and Identity: o Self-Concept: Becomes more refined, with children identifying personality traits and social roles (e.g., friend, sibling). o Self-Esteem: Developed from family support and school experiences; influenced by societal factors such as poverty and gender barriers in education.  Week 2 1. Theoretical Approaches to Development  Life-Span Approaches: Focus on how individuals grow and develop emotionally and socially over a lifetime. Erikson's psychosocial development theory is the primary example.  Stage-Specific Theories: Emphasize specific stages of cognitive, social, and moral development: o Piaget: Cognitive development in defined stages. o Vygotsky: Cognitive development through sociocultural interaction. o Bandura: Social learning through modelling and observation. o Kohlberg: Development of moral reasoning.  Ecological Systems Approach: Bronfenbrenner’s theory highlights the influence of multiple, interconnected environmental systems on development (microsystem to macrosystem). 2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Stages Erikson’s model describes eight stages, each marked by a specific psychosocial crisis and virtue that contributes to healthy personality development. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0–12 months): o Crisis: Can the infant trust the caregivers and environment? o Outcome: Successful resolution leads to hope. Mistrust may lead to fear. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Early Childhood, 1–2 years): o Crisis: Learning self-control and independence vs. doubt in one’s abilities. o Outcome: Success fosters willpower, while failure leads to feelings of shame. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3–6 years): o Crisis: Taking initiative vs. experiencing guilt for asserting oneself. o Outcome: Successful resolution develops purpose; unresolved guilt can inhibit initiative. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood, 7–11 years): o Crisis: Developing competence in skills valued by society, like school tasks. o Outcome: Success fosters competence; inferiority may arise from repeated failures. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): o Crisis: Establishing a personal identity vs. confusion about one’s role. o Outcome: Success leads to fidelity (faithfulness to self and values); failure results in role confusion. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 20–39 years): o Crisis: Forming close relationships vs. isolation.  o Outcome: Success leads to love and connection; failure results in isolation and loneliness. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood, 40–59 years): o Crisis: Contributing to the next generation vs. self-absorption. o Outcome: Success fosters care (through family and community involvement); failure results in stagnation. 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 60+ years): o Crisis: Reflecting on life’s achievements vs. regrets. o Outcome: Achieving wisdom through acceptance of one’s life; despair occurs when life is seen as wasted. 3. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Piaget's theory includes four stages, each representing a shift in thinking and understanding. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years): o Key Concepts:  Object Permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.  Deferred Imitation: Ability to recall and imitate an action after it has occurred. o Cognitive Abilities: Develops from reflex-based actions to intentional, goal- oriented actions. 2. Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): o Characteristics:  Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding others’ perspectives.  Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation, ignoring others.  Conservation: Lacks understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape. o Cognitive Abilities: Symbolic thought develops, but reasoning is still intuitive and not logical. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years): o Key Abilities:  Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains constant.  Decentration: Ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation.  Reversibility: Recognizing that actions can be reversed. o Thinking becomes logical and organised but limited to concrete objects and experiences. 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): o Characteristics:  Abstract Thinking: Capable of thinking about hypothetical scenarios.   Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning: Developing hypotheses and systematically testing them. o Adolescents in this stage develop critical and abstract thinking. 4. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky emphasised the role of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development.  Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance.  Scaffolding: Temporary support to help learners reach higher levels of understanding and skill.  Language as a Tool: Language shapes thought, moving from external speech to internal thought processes. 5. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Bandura’s theory highlights learning through observation, modelling, and imitation.  Observational Learning: Learning by observing others’ actions and outcomes without direct experience.  Modelling: Imitating behaviours, especially from individuals perceived as successful or desirable.  Influence of Attractive Models: Learners tend to imitate behaviours from role models they admire or aspire to emulate. 6. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory Kohlberg expanded on Piaget's moral reasoning, identifying three levels of moral development: 1. Pre-conventional Level (Usually in children): o Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - Morality based on avoiding punishment. o Stage 2: Self-Interest - Right actions serve individual needs. 2. Conventional Level (Common in adolescents and adults): o Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships - Morality is based on social approval. o Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - Focus on obeying laws and authority.  3. Post-conventional Level (Achieved by a minority): o Stage 5: Social Contract - Recognition that rules should promote general welfare. o Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - Morality guided by self-chosen ethical principles. 7. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner's model views development as influenced by multiple environmental systems: 1. Microsystem: Immediate environment (e.g., family, school, peer group). o Interactions are direct, and relationships influence individual development. 2. Mesosystem: Connections between microsystems (e.g., family-school relationships). o Positive or negative interactions between systems influence development. 3. Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., a parent’s workplace policies affecting family life). o Influences are not directly experienced but impact the individual’s environment. 4. Macrosystem: Larger cultural and social context (e.g., cultural values, societal laws). o Influences development broadly by shaping the environment in which individuals live. 5. Risk and Resilience: Bronfenbrenner emphasised the role of risk (exposure to adversity) and protective factors (support systems) in development. o Risk Factors: Characteristics that increase susceptibility to harm. o Resilience: The ability to adapt positively despite adversity, often facilitated by solid relationships and supportive environments.  Week 3 Adolescence (Ages 12–19) 1. Definition & General Overview  Adolescence is the developmental stage between middle childhood and adulthood, typically ages 12–19.  Stanley Hall's "Storm and Stress" theory describes adolescence as an emotionally turbulent period. However, modern perspectives argue that adolescent experiences vary by culture, family, and individual context. 2. Physical Development  Puberty: Hormonal and bodily changes mark the onset of puberty, leading to primary (e.g., reproductive organs) and secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., body hair, voice deepening).  Influencing Factors: The onset of puberty varies based on heredity, nutrition, health, and body mass.  Psychological Consequences: Physical changes, such as menarche and spermarche, often lead to heightened self-awareness, possibly influencing self-esteem and issues like eating disorders. 3. Cognitive Development  Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage: Adolescents develop abstract, systematic, and scientific thinking capacity.  Egocentrism: Adolescents may experience: o Personal Fable: A belief in their uniqueness, leading them to feel invincible or immune to harm. o Imaginary Audience: A heightened sense of being constantly observed and judged by others. 4. Identity Formation (Erikson and Marcia)  Erikson’s Stage: Identity vs. Identity Confusion – Adolescents grapple with establishing a cohesive sense of self.  Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses: o Identity Achievement: Result of exploring options and making firm commitments. o Identity Foreclosure: Accepting roles and values without self-exploration. o Identity Moratorium: Actively exploring roles without commitment. o Identity Diffusion: Lack of clear direction, apathy, and no commitment. 5. Social Influences on Identity  Family and Peers: Identity development is influenced by family support, autonomy, and peer dynamics. Adolescents may challenge parental authority and rely more on peer acceptance for self-validation.  Cultural Context: Puberty rites and social expectations vary across cultures, shaping identity uniquely. 6. Emotional Development  Autonomy and Conflict: Adolescents often seek independence, leading to conflicts with caregivers, who may try to maintain authority.  Peer Pressure: Peers play a central role in influencing positive or negative behaviours. 7. Risk Behaviours  Substance Use: There is a high prevalence of substance use among adolescents, associated with peer influence and risk-taking.  Sexual Health Risks: Early sexual activity, STIs, and teen pregnancy are significant risks. Factors delaying sexual activity include self-esteem, family stability, and education.  Violence and Suicide: Exposure to violence and high suicide rates among adolescents highlight the importance of mental health awareness. Adulthood 1. Transition to Adulthood  Role Transitions: Becoming an adult involves various life transitions, such as completing education, employment, marriage, and independence.  Levinson’s Life Stages: Adulthood is divided into: o Pre-adulthood (0–22): Early development phase. o Early Adulthood (17–45): Career and social roles development. o Middle Adulthood (40–65): Reflection and reassessment of life achievements. o Late Adulthood (60+): Managing physical and cognitive changes. 2. Early Adulthood (Ages 20–39)  Physical Development: The physical peak typically occurs in the mid-20s, followed by a gradual decline in speed and strength in the 30s.   Health Risks: In South Africa, this age group is particularly vulnerable to violence, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis.  Marriage and Parenthood: Marriage often fulfils emotional needs, while parenthood presents a role shift, especially for women. Marital satisfaction is linked to effective communication and shared values. 3. Middle Adulthood (Ages 40–65)  Physical Changes: There has been a noticeable decline in physical abilities, including menopause in women and reduced physical responsiveness in men.  Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson): A focus on contributing to society and guiding the next generation. Failure may lead to stagnation.  "Midlife Crisis": This stage may involve reassessing life goals and identity and coping with ageing. 4. Late Adulthood (65+)  Physical and Cognitive Decline: Aging brings sensory, motor, and cognitive declines, with heightened vulnerability to conditions like dementia and Alzheimer's.  Theories of Aging: o Disengagement Theory: Reduced social involvement is a natural part of ageing. o Activity Theory: Staying active and socially engaged enhances life satisfaction. o Continuity Theory: Maintaining consistent lifestyle choices promotes well- being. Ageing and Death 1. Physiological Changes  Senescence: General decline in physical systems, including sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities. Common age-related issues include cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes.  Cognitive Changes: Fluid intelligence (problem-solving) declines with age, while crystallised intelligence (accumulated knowledge) often remains stable or even improves. 2. Psychological Aspects of Aging  Retirement and Socioeconomic Impact: Older adults face challenges related to reduced income, the need for economic adjustments, and, in some cases, the need to support younger generations, especially in high-poverty contexts.   Erikson's View: Late adulthood involves "integrity vs. despair," where older adults reflect on their lives and accept mortality. 3. Grief and Loss (Kubler-Ross Model)  Stages of Grief: o Denial: Initial shock and disbelief. o Anger: Frustration and questioning, often directed at others. o Bargaining: Attempts to negotiate for more time or alleviation of loss. o Depression: Awareness of the impending loss leads to sadness. o Acceptance: The final stage involves a calm readiness for death. Risk and Resilience Across the Lifespan  Adolescents: Risk-taking is high due to peer influence and a sense of invulnerability. Key risks include substance use, violence, and early sexual behavior.  Young Adults: Violence and health risks like HIV/AIDS impact personal development and family life.  Older Adults Face health and socioeconomic challenges, such as poverty, social isolation, and declining physical health. They are resilient through family support, community involvement, and adaptive coping strategies.  Week 4 1. Introduction to Personality Development  Definition of Personality: Personality is described as an individual's unique and consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.  Key Terms: o Stability: Refers to the consistency of these traits over time. o Trait: A durable disposition to behave in a particular way across various situations. 2. Trait Theories  Gordon Allport: Identified 171 distinct personality traits that people could exhibit.  Raymond Cattell: Simplified personality into 16 primary factors using factor analysis, which led to the development of the 16PF (Personality Factor) Test.  Five-Factor Model (Big Five): o Developed by McCrae and Costa (1999), this model categorises personality into five broad dimensions, often remembered by the acronym OCEAN:  Openness: Characterized by curiosity, imagination, and openness to new experiences.  Conscientiousness: Reflects organisation, discipline, and dependability.  Extraversion: Involves sociability, assertiveness, and positive emotionality.  Agreeableness: Encompasses traits like trust, kindness, and cooperation.  Neuroticism: Associated with emotional instability, anxiety, and vulnerability. o Research Correlations: Studies have linked the Big Five traits to life outcomes such as academic success, relationship satisfaction, mental health, and physical well-being. 3. Psychodynamic Theories  Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: o Emphasizes unconscious forces that shape personality, heavily influenced by early childhood experiences and psychosexual development. o Structure of Personality:  Id: The primal, unconscious part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.  Ego: The rational component that operates on the reality principle, balancing the id's desires with social expectations.   Superego: The moralistic part, incorporating societal and parental values and striving for ideal behaviour. o Levels of Consciousness:  Conscious: Immediate awareness.  Preconscious: Just below conscious awareness, accessible with effort.  Unconscious: Deep-seated thoughts, memories, and desires influencing behaviour. o Defense Mechanisms: Strategies the ego uses to handle conflict between the id and superego, reducing anxiety. Examples include:  Repression: Keeping distressing thoughts out of consciousness.  Projection: Attributing one's unwanted feelings to others.  Displacement: Shifting emotional impulses to a substitute target.  Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.  Psychosexual Stages of Development: o Freud proposed five stages (Oral et al.), each with an erogenous zone and associated developmental tasks. o Fixation at any stage due to over- or under-gratification can affect adult personality. 4. Carl Jung's Analytical Psychology  Jung expanded Freud’s ideas, introducing the collective unconscious and archetypes.  Key Concepts: o Psyche: The total personality, a complex system including conscious and unconscious parts. o Collective Unconscious: A reservoir of shared human experiences and memories passed down genetically and culturally. o Archetypes: Universal symbols and themes (e.g., Persona, Shadow, Anima/Animus, and Self) that shape individual behaviour and perception. o Psychological Types:  Based on attitudes (Introversion vs Extroversion) and functions (Sensing et al.), distinct personality types are formed. 5. Behavioral Theories  Behavioral theories focus on observable behaviours, emphasising the role of nurture.  B.F. Skinner Asserted that personality is shaped through reinforcement and punishment. o Reinforcement: Encourages repeated behaviour; e.g., attention reinforces crying in children. o Punishment: Reduces the likelihood of a behaviour recurring; e.g., reprimanding disobedience discourages rule-breaking.  Types of Conditioning:  o Respondent Behavior: Automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning). o Operant Behavior: Behaviors shaped by their consequences (e.g., rewards increase the likelihood of repeating an action).  Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory: o Emphasizes cognition in behaviour; we think before we act. o Observational Learning: People learn behaviours by watching others, incredibly influential models like parents, teachers, or celebrities. o Self-Efficacy: A belief in one's capacity to accomplish specific tasks, affecting motivation and resilience. 6. Humanistic Perspectives  Overview: Developed as a reaction against the deterministic view of psychodynamic theories, focusing on human freedom, personal growth, and self-actualisation.  Carl Rogers: o Self-concept: A collection of beliefs about oneself. o Incongruence: A discrepancy between self-concept and reality, leading to psychological issues.  Abraham Maslow: o Hierarchy of Needs: A pyramid of human needs, beginning with basic physical requirements and progressing to self-actualisation at the top. o Self-Actualization: Represents fulfilling one's potential, associated with realism, openness, autonomy, and a strong sense of ethics. 7. Personality and Culture  Influence of Culture: Recognizes that cultural values, norms, and expectations shape personality.  Individualistic vs. Collectivist Cultures: o Individualistic: Emphasizes personal goals and self-reliance (e.g., Western cultures). o Collectivist: Prioritizes group goals and interdependence (e.g., many Eastern cultures).  Locus of Control: o Internal: Belief that one controls one's fate. o External: Perception that external forces or fate dictate life events.  Contextual Consideration: Cultural influences must be considered to fully understand personality, as mainstream Western theories may not apply universally.  Week 5 Abnormal Behavior and Psychopathology 1. Definition of Abnormal Behavior: o Abnormal behaviour refers to a psychological dysfunction in an individual, which is associated with distress or functional impairment. This behaviour deviates significantly from what is culturally accepted. o Psychopathology: Study of mental, emotional, and behavioural disorders, encompassing maladaptive behaviours and distress. 2. Criteria for Abnormality: o Statistical Deviance: Behaviors that are statistically rare or deviate from cultural norms. o Maladaptiveness: Behaviors impairing an individual's ability to adapt or function effectively. o Personal Distress: Causes subjective distress; however, not all criteria must be met for a behaviour to be considered abnormal. 3. Key Terms: o Aetiology: Refers to the cause or origin of a disorder. o Comorbidity: Occurrence of multiple disorders in a single individual. o Psychosis: Condition with loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations and delusions. o Syndrome: Cluster of symptoms that appear together regularly. Classification of Mental Illness 1. ICD and DSM: o ICD (International Classification of Diseases): A global standard published by WHO, includes a psychiatric section for mental disorders. o DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders): Published by the APA; focuses specifically on mental health disorders. The DSM-5 provides symptom-based diagnostic criteria to standardise diagnosis. 2. DSM Diagnostic Criteria: o Disorders in DSM-5 require presenting symptoms that:  Cause significant distress.  Result in disability or impairment in functioning.  Increase risk for suffering, death, disability, or loss of freedom.  Must be persistent (usually for at least four weeks). o Criteria address behavioural, psychological, or biological dysfunctions, ensuring comprehensive diagnosis. 3. DSM-IV Axes (Older Version): o Axis I: Major clinical disorders except personality disorders. o Axis II: Personality disorders and mental retardation. o Axis III: General medical conditions.  o Axis IV: Psychosocial/environmental issues affecting diagnosis. o Axis V: Global assessment of functioning. Theories and Perspectives on Mental Illness 1. Biomedical Perspective: o Focuses on biological factors, like genetics, neurotransmitter imbalances, and structural brain abnormalities, as the primary cause of mental disorders. 2. Psychodynamic Perspective: o Freud’s model with id, ego, and superego. Psychological distress arises from internal conflicts between these parts or deficiencies in managing these forces. 3. Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective: o Emphasizes the role of irrational thoughts and automatic beliefs in shaping behaviours and emotional responses. Learned behaviours and thought patterns contribute to psychopathology. 4. Community Psychology: o Takes into account the social, political, and cultural context in understanding psychological issues, emphasising the individual’s environment. 5. Integrated Approaches: o Diathesis-Stress Model: Genetic predispositions activated by stressors lead to disorders. o Biopsychosocial Model: Integrates biological, psychological, and social influences to form a comprehensive understanding. Evaluating Classification Systems 1. Reliability vs. Validity: o Diagnostic criteria are often reliable (consistent) but may lack validity (accuracy in measuring what they intend to measure). 2. Criticisms of DSM-5: o Criticized for its descriptive approach, over-reliance on biomedical factors, individualism, cultural bias, and the stigmatising potential of labelling disorders. 3. Alternative Models: o Dimensional Model: Mental disorders exist on a spectrum rather than as distinct categories. o Holistic Model: Equal focus on social, spiritual, and pharmacological treatments. o Essential/Perspectival Model: Combines physical disease, cognitive- emotional dimensions, and personal life history in understanding a disorder. o Anxiety and Related Disorders  1. Types of Anxiety Disorders: o Agoraphobia: Intense fear of open or crowded places, often accompanied by symptoms like palpitations, dizziness, and fear of losing control. o Panic Disorder: Spontaneous panic attacks without apparent cause, marked by intense fear, autonomic arousal, and lasting several minutes. o Specific Phobias: Fear of particular objects or situations, such as heights, animals, or blood, provokes significant distress. o Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent worry over daily events for at least six months, with symptoms including muscle tension and difficulty concentrating. 2. Common Symptoms of Anxiety Disorders: o Autonomic arousal (e.g., sweating, palpitations), distressing thoughts, and avoidance behaviours. Somatoform Disorders 1. Definition: o Disorders presenting with physical symptoms due to psychological factors without clear organic causes. Examples include:  Somatization Disorder: Chronic complaints about diverse physical symptoms that wax and wane with stress.  Conversion Disorder: Significant loss of physical function (e.g., paralysis) without a medical basis.  Hypochondriasis: Preoccupation with health concerns, often involving “doctor shopping.”  Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Obsessive preoccupation with perceived physical flaws. 2. Etiology and Presentation: o Often associated with cognitive distortions and personality factors. People genuinely experience symptoms despite the lack of a medical basis. Dissociative Disorders 1. Core Dissociative Disorders: o Dissociative Amnesia: Memory loss surrounding traumatic events unrelated to substance use or medical conditions. o Dissociative Fugue: Sudden loss of personal identity and memory, leading to unplanned travel and possible adoption of a new identity. o Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Presence of two or more distinct personalities, typically rooted in severe childhood trauma. o Depersonalization Disorder: Persistent feeling of detachment from self, as if one is observing their body from outside. Mood Disorders 1. Types of Mood Disorders: o Major Depressive Disorder: Prolonged episodes of sadness, hopelessness, and anhedonia, often with cognitive symptoms like negative self-view. o Bipolar Disorder: Cycles between manic episodes (euphoria, hyperactivity) and depressive states. Chronic but episodic, with periods of stability between episodes. 2. Contributing Factors: o Cognitive factors (e.g., Seligman’s learned helplessness), excessive rumination, and social factors impacting reinforcement and social connections. Personality Disorders 1. Classification of Personality Disorders: o Cluster A: Odd/eccentric (e.g., paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal disorders). o Cluster B: Dramatic/impulsive (e.g., borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial disorders). o Cluster C: Anxious/fearful (e.g., avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive disorders). 2. Core Features of Personality Disorders: o Persistent, inflexible personality traits causing significant distress and impairment. Traits often begin in adolescence and can be resistant to change. 3. Cultural and Social Factors: o Cultural norms may influence the presentation and diagnosis of personality disorders, such as societal views on dependency and submission in females. Culture and Psychopathology 1. Role of Culture in Defining Abnormality: o Disorders like amafufunyana and mouthwash reflect culturally bound syndromes specific to South Africa. Cultural context is crucial in understanding these presentations. 2. Ethnocultural Factors: o Determining how symptoms are perceived, diagnosed, and treated across diverse societies is critical. Legal Implications 1. Insanity and the Legal System: o Insanity as a legal status denotes that individuals cannot be held responsible for actions due to mental illness. The insanity defence is used in criminal trials to argue a lack of intent. 2. Involuntary Commitment: o Individuals can be hospitalised against their will if deemed dangerous to themselves or others. The complexity lies in accurately predicting dangerousness.  Week 6 1. Defining Psychotherapy and Core Approaches  Psychotherapy: An intentional, structured engagement between a therapist and client to bring about change through the therapeutic relationship. o This relationship is collaborative, where the therapist provides insight, guidance, or behavioural techniques tailored to the client’s specific issues.  Core Psychotherapeutic Approaches: o Psychoanalytic Therapy:  Based on Freud’s theories, this approach centres on uncovering unconscious conflicts (e.g., between the id, ego, and superego) as the root of psychological distress.  Techniques: Free association (spontaneous expression of thoughts), interpretation (revealing hidden meanings), dream analysis, and transference. o Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT):  Developed by Aaron Beck, this approach focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and behaviours.  Techniques: Psychoeducation, thought stopping, recording and analysing automatic negative thoughts, and homework assignments to practice new cognitive skills. o Person-Centered Therapy (Rogers):  Emphasizes the therapeutic relationship, aiming to create a non- judgmental, empathetic space that fosters self-acceptance and personal growth.  Core elements: Genuineness (therapist’s honesty), unconditional positive regard (non-judgmental support), and empathy (understanding the client’s perspective). 2. Biopsychosocial Model in Treatment  Biopsychosocial Model: An integrated approach acknowledging that physical, mental, and social factors are interdependent in affecting mental health. o Application: In South Africa, this model supports a multidimensional view, essential for addressing complex barriers like limited access to care, the divide between private and public services, and cultural beliefs about mental health.  Barriers in South Africa: o Access disparities (public vs. private care). o Social stigma around mental health. o Limited resources and healthcare infrastructure. 3. Insight Therapies  Insight Therapies aim to foster self-understanding, often without a strict time frame. o Psychoanalysis:  A deeper focus on unconscious motivations through techniques like free association and dream analysis to resolve repressed conflicts.  Key Concepts:  Resistance: Clients’ unconscious defences hinder therapy progress.  Transference: The client projects feelings from significant past relationships onto the therapist.  Counter-Transference: The therapist’s emotional reaction to the client could influence objectivity. o Client-Centered Therapy:  Encourages self-exploration and congruence (alignment between self- perception and reality).  Therapeutic Climate: A supportive environment where the therapist’s empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard help the client lower defences and explore true feelings. 4. Behavioral Therapies  Behavioral Therapy: Focused on modifying maladaptive behaviors by applying learning principles. Assumes that learned behaviours can be unlearned. o Systematic Desensitization:  Developed by Joseph Wolpe, this technique treats phobias by gradually reducing anxiety responses through exposure and relaxation.  Application: Utilizes an anxiety hierarchy, from least to most anxiety- provoking stimuli, combined with relaxation techniques. o Exposure Therapy: Gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimuli to demonstrate harmlessness, commonly used for anxiety, OCD, PTSD, and panic disorders. o Social Skills Training: Targets improving interpersonal skills through techniques like modelling (observing others), rehearsal (practising behaviours), and shaping (gradually increasing complexity). o Aversion Therapy: Pairs an unwanted behaviour with an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., nausea-inducing drugs with alcohol for alcoholism). This technique is controversial due to ethical considerations. 5. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Cognitive Distortions  CBT focuses on restructuring faulty cognitions and developing adaptive behaviours.  Cognitive Distortions: Patterns of faulty thinking contributing to psychological distress. Examples: o Overgeneralization: Drawing broad conclusions based on a single incident.  o Magnification and Minimization: Exaggerating negatives or downplaying positives. o Personalization: Attributing external events to oneself. o Polarized Thinking: Viewing situations in extremes (all-or-nothing thinking).  CBT Techniques: o Thought Stopping: Interrupting harmful thought patterns. o Reality Testing: Evaluating negative thoughts against actual evidence. o Homework Assignments: Encouraging clients to practice cognitive restructuring and behaviour changes outside sessions. 6. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)  Reciprocal Determinism: Interaction between personal factors, behaviours, and environmental influences. Each factor shapes and is shaped by the others.  Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s capability to achieve desired outcomes. o High Self-Efficacy: Confidence in achieving goals. o Low Self-Efficacy: Leads to avoidance and self-doubt.  Observational Learning: Learning behaviours by observing others is especially significant in shaping social behaviours through modelling. 7. Systems and Postmodern Approaches  Narrative Therapy externalises problems, viewing individuals as separate from their issues. Therapy focuses on reshaping the narrative around the problem.  Solution-focused brief Therapy (SFBT): This therapy is future-focused and positive, aiming for rapid relief by empowering clients to recognise solutions.  Feminist Therapy emphasises the impact of social, cultural, and power dynamics and addresses gender inequality within therapeutic relationships.  Systemic Therapy examines relational patterns within families or groups rather than focusing solely on the individual’s internal conflicts. 8. Psychopharmacology and Biomedical Interventions  Psychopharmacology: Uses medication to address chemical imbalances. o Antipsychotics: Used for schizophrenia; reduce dopamine activity to mitigate psychotic symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations). o Antidepressants: SSRIs and SNRIs treat depression by affecting serotonin and norepinephrine pathways. o ECT: Electroconvulsive therapy induces seizures to relieve severe depression. Despite mixed evidence, it remains a treatment option for resistant cases. 9. Cultural and Indigenous Approaches in South Africa  Traditional Healers: Over 200,000 traditional healers in South Africa address mental health through rituals, herbal remedies, and spiritual practices, focusing on physical, social, and supernatural causes of distress.  Integration with Western Approaches: Efforts are growing to incorporate traditional practices into formal healthcare, though collaboration challenges remain. 10. De-Institutionalization and Community-Based Care  De-Institutionalization: Shift from prolonged psychiatric hospitalisation to community-based care, which has reduced hospitalisation rates but introduced challenges like homelessness and treatment non-compliance.  Community Support Systems: These systems aim to provide resources, psychological education, and social support, which are crucial for successful reintegration. 11. Ethics, Professional Conduct, and Client-Therapist Dynamics  Ethical Framework: Therapy is governed by ethical codes like those enforced by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), emphasising informed consent, confidentiality, and therapist professionalism.  Inappropriate Client Behavior: Substance abuse, neurotic or psychiatric disorders, or misinterpretations of the therapist’s role can disrupt therapy. Therapists are trained to manage these dynamics professionally to maintain therapeutic efficacy.