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Developmental Psychology Notes Chapter 1-3 Diane Papalia Developmental Psychology Mindanao State University (MSU) 43 pag. Document shared on https://ww...

Developmental Psychology Notes Chapter 1-3 Diane Papalia Developmental Psychology Mindanao State University (MSU) 43 pag. Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) CHAPTER 1 1. Physical (Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and The Study of Human Development health) The field of human development focuses on the 2. Cognitive (Learning, attention, memory, scientific study of the systematic processes of language, thinking, reasoning, and change and stability in people creativity) 3. Psychosocial (Emotions, personality, life-span development and social relationships) -from “womb to tomb,” comprising the entire human life span from conception to death. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT -concept of human development as a lifelong Physical Development - growth of body and process, which can be studied scientifically brain, including patterns of change in sensory -its goals came to include description, capacities, motor skills, and health. explanation, prediction, and intervention Cognitive Development - pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial Development – patterns of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships. three domains of development: sensory perception (physical development), learning (cognitive development), and social relationships building (psychosocial development) For example, physical development affects cognitive and psychosocial development. cognitive advances and declines are related to physical and psychosocial development psychosocial development can affect cognitive and physical functioning Developmentalists study processes of change and stability in all domains, or aspects, of PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN development throughout all periods of the life span. Division of the life span into periods is a social construction: a concept or practice that is an Developmental scientists study three major invention of a particular culture or society. domains, or aspects, of the self: Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  Social Construction - concept or practice that may appear natural and obvious to those who accept it but that in reality is an invention of a particular culture or society A similar construction involves adolescence, which is a recent concept that emerged as society became more industrialized Influences on Development Individual Differences - differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. one challenge in developmental psychology is to identify the universal influences on development, and then apply those to understanding individual differences in developmental trajectories. HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND MATURATION Influences on development can be described in two primary ways 1. Heredity - inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents. -genetic roll of the dice. 2. Environment - totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  - starting at conception with the risk factors- conditions that increase the prenatal environment in the likelihood of a negative developmental womb and continuing outcome. throughout life.  Culture and Race/Ethnicity Maturation -unfolding of a natural culture - a society’s or group’s total way of life, sequence of physical and behavioral changes. including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, - brain development language, and physical products—all learned behavior, passed on from parents to children individualistic culture - a culture in which (Only when deviation from the average is people tend to prioritize personal goals ahead extreme should we consider development of collective goals and to view themselves as exceptionally advanced or delayed) distinct individuals. collectivistic culture - a culture in which people CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT tend to prioritize collaborative social goals ahead of individual goals and to view  Family themselves in the context of their social nuclear family- two-generational kinship, relationships. economic, and household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren. INTERSECTIONALITY AND INEQUITY IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT extended family - multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other Intersectionality is an analytic framework relatives, sometimes living together in an focused on how a person’s identities—including extended-family household characteristics such as race, gender, age, sexuality, disability, socioeconomic status, and polygamy- family structure in which one ethnicity—combine to create differences in spouse, most commonly a man, is married to discrimination or privilege more than one partner ethnic group - a group united by ancestry, race,  Socioeconomic Status religion, language, or national origins, which Poverty is a problem worldwide contribute to a sense of shared identity. Moreover, the earlier poverty begins, the longer - An ethnic group consists of it lasts, and the higher the concentration of people united by a distinctive culture, poverty in the community in which children live, ancestry, religion, language, or national the worse the outcomes for those children are origin, all of which contribute to a sense of shared identity and shared attitudes, socioeconomic status (SES)- combination of beliefs, and values economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, -Given this diversity within education, and occupation. groups, a term such as black or Hispanic can be an ethnic gloss Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) The term race, historically and popularly viewed 2. normative history-graded as an identifiable biological category, is more - are significant events (such as the accurately defined as a social construct. Great Depression or World War II) that shape the behavior and attitudes of a Categories of culture, race, and ethnicity are historical generation: a group of people fluid, “continuously shaped and redefined by who experience the event at a social and political forces” formative time in their lives Race - a grouping of humans distinguished by 3. nonnormative their outward physical characteristics or social - influences are unusual events that qualities from other groups. Not a biological have a major impact on individual lives construct. because they disturb the expected sequence of the life cycle. They are Ethnic Gloss- overgeneralization about an either typical events that happen at an ethnic or cultural group that obscures atypical time of life (such as the death differences within the group. of a parent when a child is young) or  The Historical Context atypical events (such as surviving a plane crash) normative influences: biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in a society in similar ways and events historical generation- group of people strongly that touch only certain individual influenced by a major historical event during Normative -Characteristic of an event that their formative period. occurs in a similar way for most people in a - For example, the generations group. that came of age during the Depression Nonnormative - characteristic of an unusual and World War II tend to show a strong event that happens to a particular person or a sense of social interdependence and typical event that happens at an unusual time of trust that has declined among more re life Historical Generation -a group of people A historical generation is not the same as an age strongly influenced by a major historical event cohort: a group of people born at about the during their formative period. same time. A historical generation may contain Cohort- a group of people born at about the more than one cohort, but cohorts are part of a same time. historical generation only if they experience major, shaping historical events at a formative point in their lives Three Types Of Influences 1. normative age-graded TIMING OF INFLUENCES: CRITICAL OR -similar for people in a particular age SENSITIVE PERIODS group. The timing of biological events is fairly predictable within a normal range. In a well-known study, Konrad Lorenz (1957), an For example, people don’t experience Austrian zoologist, showed that newly hatched puberty at age 35 or menopause at 12 ducklings will instinctively follow the first Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) moving object they see, whether it is a member Plasticity - range of modifiability of of their species or not performance. Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain through experience. Imprinting - instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early sensitive periods - times in development when development, a young animal forms an a person is particularly open to certain kinds of attachment to the first moving object it sees, experiences usually the mother. - automatic and irreversible The Life-Span Developmental Approach (Lorenz) Paul B. Baltes (1936–2006) and his colleagues - result of a predisposition (Baltes & Smith, 2004) have identified seven toward learning: the readiness of an organism’s key principles of a life-span developmental nervous system to acquire certain information approach during a brief critical period in early life 1. Development is lifelong. critical period -specific time when a given Development is a lifelong process of event or its absence has a specific impact on change. Each period of the life span is development. affected by what happened before and will -If a necessary event does not affect what is to come. Each period has occur during a critical period of maturation, unique characteristics and value. No period normal development will not occur; and the is more or less important than any other. resulting abnormal patterns may be irreversible 2. Development is multidimensional. Cross-cultural research helps us to tease out It occurs along multiple interacting what aspects of our behavior are universal—or dimensions— biological, psychological, and common to humans everywhere—or culturally social—each of which may develop at specific, the product of our upbringing. One varying rates. area of cross-cultural research involves “baby talk,” or distinctive speech patterns with 3. Development is multidirectional. preverbal infants. Infant-directed (ID) speech As people gain in one area, they may lose in includes simplified grammar, slower tempo, another, sometimes at the same time. pitch variations, exaggerated sound intonation, Children grow mostly in one direction—up and repetition of key words and phrases — both in size and in abilities. Then the However, the concept of critical periods in balance gradually shifts. Adolescents humans is controversial. Because many aspects typically gain in physical abilities, but their of development, even in the physical domain, facility in learning a new language typically have been found to show plasticity, or declines. Some abilities, such as vocabulary, modifiability of performance, it may be more often continue to increase throughout useful to think about sensitive periods, when a most of adulthood; others, such as the developing person is especially responsive to ability to solve unfamiliar problems, may certain kinds of experiences diminish; but some new attributes, such as wisdom, may increase with age. Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) 4. Relative influences of biology and culture 7. Development is influenced by the shift over the life span. historical and cultural context. The process of development is influenced Each person develops within multiple by both biology and culture, but the contexts—circumstances or conditions balance between these influences changes. defined in part by maturation and in part Biological abilities, such as sensory acuity by time and place. Human beings not only and muscular strength and coordination, influence but also are influenced by their weaken with age, but cultural supports, historical-cultural context. As we discuss such as education, relationships, and throughout this book, developmental technologically age-friendly environments, scientists have found significant cohort may help compensate. differences, for example, in intellectual functioning, in women’s midlife emotional 5. Development involves changing resource development, and in the flexibility of allocations. personality in old age Individuals choose to invest their resources of time, energy, talent, money, and social support in varying ways. Resources may be CHAPTER 2 used for growth (for example, learning to play an instrument or improving one’s skill), Theory and Research for maintenance or recovery (practicing to A scientific theory of development is a set of maintain or regain proficiency), or for logically related concepts or statements that dealing with loss when maintenance and seek to describe and explain development and recovery are not possible. The allocation of to predict the kinds of behavior that might resources to these three functions changes occur under certain conditions throughout life as the total available pool of resources decreases. In childhood and Sometimes research supports a hypothesis and young adulthood, the bulk of resources the theory on which it was based. At other typically goes to growth; in old age, to times, scientists must modify their theories to regulation of loss. In midlife, the allocation account for unexpected data. is more evenly balanced among the three Research findings often suggest additional functions. hypotheses to be examined and provide 6. Development shows plasticity. direction for dealing with practical issues. Many abilities, such as memory, strength, and endurance, can be improved the willingness of scientists to reevaluate their significantly with training and practice, beliefs in light of new data is one of science’s even late in life. However, even in children, greatest strengths. If scientists were to rigidly plasticity has limits that depend in part on adhere to old belief systems and refuse to the various influences on development. consider new information, then science would One of the tasks of developmental research never progress. It is the emergence of new is to discover to what extent particular data, and the willingness to consider it, that kinds of development can be modified at moves us forward. various ages. Theory - coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data. Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) hypotheses - possible explanations for mechanistic model - model that views human phenomena, used to predict the outcome of development as a series of predictable research. responses to stimuli ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR In the mechanistic view, human behavior is REACTIVE? much the same: It results from the operation of biological parts in response to external or For example, the eighteenth-century English internal stimuli. If we know enough about how philosopher John Locke held that a young child the human “machine” is put together and is a tabula rasa—a “blank slate”—upon which about the forces acting on it, we can predict society writes. what the person will do. How the child developed, in either positive or negative ways, depended entirely on experiences. Organismic Model (Qualitative change) In contrast, the French philosopher Jean organismic model - model that views human Jacques Rousseau believed that children are development as internally initiated by an active born “noble savages” who develop according organism and as occurring in a sequence of to their own positive natural tendencies if not qualitatively different stages. corrupted by society - This model sees people as Psychologists who believe in reactive active, growing organisms that set their own development conceptualize the developing development in motion child as a hungry sponge that soaks up - They initiate events; they do experiences and is shaped by this input over not just react. The driving force for change is time. internal. Environmental influences do not Psychologists who believe in active cause development, though they can speed or development argue that people create slow it. experiences for themselves and are motivated - Because human behavior is to learn about the world around them viewed as an organic whole, it cannot be predicted by breaking it down into simple responses to environmental stimulation The debate over Locke’s and Rousseau’s philosophies led to two contrasting models, or For organicists, development has an underlying, images, of development: mechanistic and orderly structure, though it may not be obvious organismic. from moment to moment. Similarly, organicists describe development after birth as a progressive sequence of stages, moving toward Mechanistic Model (Quantitative change) full maturation Locke’s view was the forerunner of the mechanistic model. In this model, people are ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS like machines that react to environmental input OR DISCONTINUOUS? Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) The mechanistic and organismic models also occurring in a series of distinct stages, like differ on the second issue: Is development stairsteps continuous, that is, gradual and incremental, or discontinuous, that is, abrupt or uneven? Theoretical Perspectives Mechanist theorists see development as continuous: as occurring in small incremental Five major perspectives underlie much stages influential theory and research on human development: Development is always governed by the same processes and involves the gradual refinement (1) psychoanalytic, which focuses on and extension of early skills into later abilities, unconscious emotions and drives; allowing one to make predictions about future characteristics on the basis of past (2) learning, which studies observable performance behavior; quantitative change- change in number or (3) cognitive, which analyzes thought amount, such as in height, weight, size of processes; vocabulary, or frequency of communication. (4) contextual, which emphasizes the impact of qualitative change - discontinuous change in the historical, social, and cultural context; and kind, structure, or organization (5) evolutionary/sociobiological, which - marked by the emergence of considers evolutionary and biological new phenomena that could not be easily underpinnings of behavior. predicted on the basis of past functioning Psychoanalytic Perspective -view of human development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior. As an example of the difference between quantitative and qualitative change, take Psychosexual Development- in Freudian pregnancy. Being 2 months pregnant versus theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of being 6 months pregnant is a quantitative childhood personality development in which change—it involves being more or less gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus pregnant. However, not being pregnant in and then to the genitals. comparison to being pregnant is a qualitative change. It is fundamentally a different state, not just a different level of the same state. Organismic theorists are proponents of stage theories in which development is seen as Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  Freud proposed that personality forms through unconscious childhood conflicts between the inborn urges of the id and the requirements of civilized life. These conflicts occur in a sequence of five stages of psychosexual development in which sensual pleasure shifts from one body zone to another—from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. At each stage, the behavior that is the chief source of gratification (or frustration) changes—from feeding to elimination and eventually to sexual activity. According to Freud, if children receive too little or too much gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation, an arrest in development that can show up in adult personality (EXAMPLE) Babies whose needs are not met during the oral stage, when feeding is the main source of pleasure, may grow up to become nail-biters or smokers. A person who, as a toddler, had too-strict toilet training may be fixated at the anal stage, and be obsessively clean, rigidly tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy. According to Freud, a key event in psychosexual development occurs in the phallic stage of early childhood. Boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers, and girls to their fathers, and they have aggressive urges toward the same-sex parent, whom they regard as a rival. Freud called these developments the Oedipus and Electra complexes PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC Children eventually resolve their anxiety over these feelings by identifying with the same-sex Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a Viennese parent and move into the latency stage of physician and the originator of the middle childhood, a period of relative emotional psychoanalytic perspective. He believed in calm and intellectual and social exploration. reactive development, as well as qualitative They redirect their sexual energies into other changes over time. pursuits, such as schoolwork, relationships, and hobbies Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) The genital stage, the final stage, lasts particular virtue, or strength—in this case, the throughout adulthood. The sexual urges virtue of hope. repressed during latency now resurface to flow Successful resolution of each crisis puts the in socially approved channels, which Freud person in a particularly good position to defined as heterosexual relations with persons address the next crisis, a process that occurs outside the family of origin iteratively across the life span. Freud made us aware of the importance of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations; the role of childhood experiences PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING in forming personality; the ambivalence of emotional responses, the role of mental learning perspective- view of human representations of the self and others in the development that holds that changes in establishment of intimate relationships; and the behavior result from experience or from path of normal development from an immature, adaptation to the environment dependent state to a mature, interdependent Psychologists at the time also viewed the mind state. as tabula rasa, a blank slate upon which experience could write. In this view, everything a person became depended upon experience Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Behaviorists saw development as continuous, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizing incremental quantitative changes covers eight stages across the life span over time, and reactive, occurring in response to environmental input. The learning approach Each stage involves what Erikson originally was the dominant ideology in the field of called a crisis in personality*—a major psychology in the 1950s. psychosocial challenge that is particularly important at that time and will remain an issue Two of the major subtheories were to some degree throughout the rest of life. behaviorism and the social learning approach These issues must be satisfactorily resolved for healthy ego development. Behaviorism is a mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior as a predictable psychosocial development - pattern of change response to experience. Behaviorists consider in emotions, personality, and social development as reactive and continuous. relationships. - Behavioral research focuses on In Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and associative learning, in which a mental culturally influenced process of development of link is formed between two events. Two the ego, or self. kinds of associative learning are classical conditioning and operant The critical theme of infancy, for example, is conditioning. basic trust versus basic mistrust. People need to trust the world and the people in it. –learning theory that However, they also need some mistrust to emphasizes the predictable role of protect themselves from danger. The successful environment in causing observable outcome of each stage is the development of a behavior Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  the consequences of “operating” on the environment. The American psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904– Classical Conditioning 1990) argued that an organism— animal or The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849– human—will tend to repeat a response that has 1936) devised experiments in which dogs been reinforced by desirable consequences and learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that will suppress a response that has been rang at feeding time. These experiments were punished. Thus reinforcement is the process by the foundation for classical conditioning, in which a behavior is strengthened, increasing which a response (in this case, salivation) to a the likelihood that the behavior will be stimulus (the bell) is evoked after repeated repeated. association with a stimulus that normally elicits In Angel’s case, his mother’s attention the response reinforces his babbling. Punishment is the Classical Conditioning -learning based on process by which a behavior is weakened, associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily decreasing the likelihood of repetition. If elicit a response with another stimulus that Angel’s mother frowned when he babbled, he does elicit the response would be less likely to babble again. Reinforcement is most effective when it immediately follows a behavior. If a response is The American behaviorist John B. Watson no longer reinforced, it will eventually be (1878–1958) applied such stimulus response extinguished, that is, return to its original theories to children, claiming that he could (baseline) level. mold any infant in any way he chose. In one of the earliest and most famous demonstrations Operant Conditioning of classical conditioning in human beings (1) Learning based on association of behavior (Watson & Rayner, 1920), he taught an 11- with its consequences month-old baby known as “Little Albert” to fear furry white objects. (2) Learning based on reinforcement or punishment. reinforcement -the process by which a Operant Conditioning behavior is strengthened, increasing the Angel lies in his crib. When he starts to babble likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. (“ma-ma-ma”), his mother smiles and repeats punishment -the process by which a behavior is the syllables. Angel learns that his behavior weakened, decreasing the likelihood of (babbling) can produce a desirable repetition consequence (loving attention from a parent); and so he keeps babbling to attract his mother’s attention. An originally accidental Social Learning (Social Cognitive) Theory behavior (babbling) has become a conditioned response the original postulates of the behavioral approach were expanded by the American This type of learning is called operant psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura conditioning because the individual learns from Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) developed many of the principles of social series of four stages involving qualitatively learning theory. Whereas behaviorists see the distinct types of mental operations environment as the chief impetus for cognitive perspective: development, Bandura suggests that the impetus for development is bidirectional.  Piaget’s theory of cognitive Bandura called this concept reciprocal development determinism—the person acts on the world as  Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of the world acts on the person cognitive development  information-processing approach. Classic social learning theory maintains that people learn appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models—that is, by watching other people. This process is called Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory observational learning, or modeling Both cognitive psychology and developmental Through feedback on their behavior, children psychology owe an enormous debt to the work gradually form standards for judging their of the Swiss theoretician Jean Piaget (1896– actions and become more selective in choosing 1980). Piaget developed the cognitive-stage models who demonstrate those standards. theory that reintroduced the concept of They also begin to develop a sense of self- scientific inquiry into mental states. efficacy, or confidence in their abilities Piaget viewed development organismically, as the product of children’s attempts to understand and act upon their world. He also Social Learning Theory -theory that behaviors believed in qualitative development, and thus are learned by observing and imitating models. his theory delineates a series of stages Also called social cognitive theory. characterizing development at different ages Reciprocal Determinism- Bandura’s term for Piaget suggested that cognitive development bidirectional forces that affect development. begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the environment. By rooting for a nipple, feeling a Observational Learning -Learning through pebble, or exploring the boundaries of a room, watching the behavior of others. young children develop a more accurate picture self-efficacy - sense of one’s capability to of their surroundings and greater competence master challenges and achieve goals. in dealing with them. This cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes: organization, adaptation, and equilibration. PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE Organization - Organization is the tendency to The cognitive perspective focuses on thought create categories, such as birds, by observing processes and the behavior that reflects those the characteristics that individual members of a processes category, such as sparrows and cardinals, have in common Cognitive Perspective - view that thought processes are central to development. (1) Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge. Cognitive-Stage Theory- Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  (2) Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material achieved through processes of assimilation and to be remembered. accommodation. Assimilation- Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive According to Piaget, people create increasingly structure. complex cognitive structures called schemes, ways of organizing information about the world Accommodation- Piaget’s term for changes in a that govern the way the child thinks and cognitive structure to include new information. behaves in a particular situation. As children Equilibration- Piaget’s term for the tendency to acquire more information, their schemes seek a stable balance among cognitive become more and more complex elements; achieved through a balance between schemes - Piaget’s term for organized patterns assimilation and accommodation of thought and behavior used in particular situations. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Adaptation is Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of what they The Russian psychologist Lev Semenovich already know. Adaptation occurs through two Vygotsky (1896–1934) focused on the social and complementary processes: cultural processes that guide children’s cognitive development. (1) assimilation, taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory structures, and described cognitive growth as a collaborative process. (2) accommodation, adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new information Vygotsky placed special emphasis on language, not merely as an expression of knowledge and thought but as an essential tool for learning and How does the shift from assimilation to thinking about the world accommodation occur? Piaget argued that According to Vygotsky, adults or more advanced children strive for equilibration between their peers must help direct and organize a child’s cognitive structures and new experiences. In learning before the child can master and other words, children want what they internalize it. This guidance is most effective in understand of the world to match what they helping children cross the zone of proximal observe around them. When children’s development (ZPD), the gap between what they understanding of the world does not match are already able to do by themselves and what what they are experiencing, they find they can accomplish with assistance themselves in a state of disequilibrium. Disequilibrium can be thought of as an Sensitive and effective instruction, then, should uncomfortable motivational state, and it pushes be aimed at the ZPD and increase in complexity children into accommodation as the child’s abilities improve. Responsibility for directing learning gradually shifts to the Adaptation- Piaget’s term for adjustment to child, such as when an adult teaches a child to new information about the environment, float: the adult first supports the child in the Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) water and then lets go gradually as the child’s The Information-Processing Approach body relaxes into a horizontal position. The information-processing approach seeks to The supportive assistance with a task that explain cognitive development by analyzing the parents, teachers, or others give a child is processes involved in making sense of incoming known as scaffolding information and performing tasks effectively: such processes as attention, memory, planning (For example) strategies, decision making, and goal setting. Noah receives a new puzzle for his birthday, The information-processing approach is not a but after emptying the pieces on the dining single theory but a framework that supports a room table and trying to fit them together, he wide range of theories and research makes little progress. His older sister sees him trying, sits next to him, and offers advice on Some information-processing theorists compare how to begin. “Try putting all the pieces of the the brain to a computer: there are certain same color in piles,” she says. “That makes it inputs (such as sensory impressions) and certain easier to see what goes together. You can look outputs (such as behaviors). Information- at the box for clues. And if you do the edges processing theorists are interested in what first, then you have the outline already done.” happens in the middle With his sister’s scaffolding, Noah is able to information-processing researchers use start working on the puzzle. He can move to the observational data to infer what goes on high end of his zone of proximal development between a stimulus and a response and maximize his learning (For example) they may ask a person to recall a Vygotsky’s ideas have grown in stature and list of words and then observe any difference in prominence as their implications for education performance if the person repeats the list over and cognitive testing have become more and over before being asked to recall the words apparent. or is kept from doing so. Through such studies, (For example) most intelligence tests assess some information-processing researchers have what a child has already learned. By contrast, an developed computational models or flowcharts intelligence test in the Vygotskian tradition that analyze the specific steps people go might allow testers to offer hints to children through in gathering, storing, retrieving, and who were having trouble answering a question, using information thereby focusing on that child’s potential Information-processing theorists view learning development as continuous. They note Sociocultural Theory - Vygotsky’s theory of how agerelated increases in the speed, complexity, contextual factors affect children’s and efficiency of mental processing and in the development. variety of material that can be stored in memory. Zone Of Proximal Development (ZPD) - Vygotsky’s term for the difference between information-processing approach what a child can do alone and what the child (1) Approach to the study of cognitive can do with help. scaffolding Temporary development by observing and analyzing the support to help a child master a task. mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) (2) Approach to the study of cognitive  The microsystem consists of the development that analyzes processes involved everyday environment of home, work, in perceiving and handling information school, or neighborhood. It includes face-to-face interactions with siblings, parents, friends, classmates, PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL or later in life, spouses, work colleagues, or According to the contextual perspective, employers. development can be understood only in its  The mesosystem is the interlocking social context. Contextualists see the influence of microsystems. individual, not as a separate entity interacting with the environment, but as an inseparable For example, a parent’s bad day at part of it work may affect interactions with a child later that evening in a negative way. Contextual Perspective -view of human Despite never having actually gone to the development that sees the individual as workplace, a child is still affected by it. inseparable from the social context.  The exosystem consists of interactions Bioecological Theory - Bronfenbrenner’s between a microsystem and an outside approach to understanding processes and system or institution. contexts of human development that identifies five levels of environmental influence. For example, countries differ with respect to what type of parental leave, if The bioecological theory of American any, is available. Whether or not a parent psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) can stay home with a newborn is a (1979) is generally represented as a set of rings substantial influence on development. with the developing child in the middle Thus, government policies trickle down and Here, individual difference variables such as can affect a child’s day-to-day experiences. age, sex, health, abilities, or temperament are  The macrosystem consists of present. The child is not seen as just an overarching cultural patterns, such as outcome of development; the child is an active dominant beliefs, ideologies, and shaper of development. But the child does not economic and political systems. exist in isolation. To understand development, we must see the child within the context of the For example, individuals are multiple environments surrounding them. affected by the type of political system they live in, and they might reasonably have different experiences if raised in an open democratic society versus an authoritarian regime with limited freedoms.  Last, the chronosystem represents the dimension of time. Time marches on, and as it does, changes occur. These can include changes in family composition (as when a new child is born or a divorce occurs), place of Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected])  residence, or parents’ employment, as about attachment in humans. He viewed well as larger events such as wars, infants’ attachment to a caregiver as a ideological shifts, or economic cycles. mechanism that evolved in part to protect them from predators By looking at systems that affect individuals in and beyond the family, this bioecological Evolutionary Psychology- application of approach helps us to see the variety of Darwinian principles of natural selection and influences on development. The contextual survival of the fittest to individual behavior. perspective also reminds us that findings about Ethologists focus on cross-species the development of people in one culture or in comparisons, whereas evolutionary one group within a culture psychologists focus on humans and apply Darwinian principles to human behavior PERSPECTIVE 5: The psychological products of natural selection EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL in humans are known as cognitive adaptations. So, for example, our brains have evolved to find The evolutionary/sociobiological perspective certain faces and body types as attractive, to focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of strive for dominance, and to perceive babies as behavior. cute because these propensities addressed the Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, it adaptive problems of mate selection, access to draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, resources, and survival of young. genetics, ethology, and evolutionary Most cognitive adaptations are tailored to a psychology to explain the adaptive, or survival, specific problem. For example, morning value of behavior for an individual or species. sickness has been theorized to have evolved to Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective -view protect the fetus from teratogens (harmful of human development that focuses on substances) during the first trimester of evolutionary and biological bases of behavior pregnancy when it is most vulnerable Ethology -study of distinctive adaptive Other adaptations, such as human intelligence, behaviors of species of animals that have are viewed as having evolved to help people evolved to increase survival of the species. face a wide variety of problems flexibly Ethologists compare animals of different Evolutionary psychologists place great weight species and seek to identify which behaviors on the environment to which humans adapt are universal and which are specific to a and the flexibility of the human min particular species or modifiable by experience. For example, one widespread characteristic throughout the animal kingdom is called Research Methods proximity-seeking, or, more casually, “staying QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH close to mommy.” Quantitative Research- research that deals The British psychologist John Bowlby (1969) with objectively measurable data. drew upon his knowledge of proximity-seeking behavior in animals as he formed his ideas Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) For example, quantitative researchers might children to draw their perceptions of the study the fear and anxiety children feel before upcoming event surgery by asking them to answer questions, Qualitative research is more flexible and using a numerical scale, about how fearful or informal, and these researchers might be more anxious they are. These data could then be interested in gathering and exploring large compared to data for children not facing amounts of data to see what hypotheses surgery to determine whether a statistically emerge than in running statistical analyses on significant difference exists between the two numerical data groups Scientific Method - system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, SAMPLING which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested Because studying an entire population (a group by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, to whom the findings may apply) is usually too forming tentative conclusions, and costly and time-consuming, investigators select disseminating finding a sample, a smaller group within the population Steps Often quantitative researchers seek to achieve representativeness through random selection, 1. Identification of a problem to be studied, in which each person in a population has an often on the basis of a theory or of previous equal and independent chance of being chosen. research The result of random selection is a random sample 2. Formulation of hypotheses to be tested by research 3. Collection of data Population -the entire pool of individuals under study from which a sample is drawn and to 4. Statistical analysis of the data to determine which findings may apply. whether they support the hypothesis Sample- group of participants chosen to 5. Formation of tentative conclusions represent the entire population under study. 6. Dissemination of findings so other observers random selection - selection of a sample in can check, learn from, analyze, repeat, and such a way that each person in a population build on the results. has an equal and independent chance of being Qualitative Research- research that focuses on chosen. nonnumerical data, such as subjective random sample – a sample of individuals experiences, feelings, or beliefs. chosen in such a way that every individual in Qualitative researchers might study the same the population has an equal and independent subject areas as quantitative researchers, but chance of being chosen. their perspective informs both how they collect WEIRD - Acronym (Western, educated, data and how they interpret it. For example, if industrialized, rich, and democratic) for the qualitative researchers were to study children’s type of societies from which research samples emotional state prior to surgery, they might do are typically drawn. so with unstructured interviews or by asking Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION Common ways of gathering data include self- reports (verbal or visual reports by study participants), observation of participants in laboratory or natural settings, and behavioral or performance measures. Researchers may use one or more of these data collection techniques in any research design. Qualitative Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation research tends to rely on self-reports, often in Observation takes two forms: naturalistic the form of in-depth, open-ended interviews or observation and laboratory observation. In visual techniques (such as asking participants to naturalistic observation, researchers look at draw their impressions of an experience), and people in real-life settings. The researchers do on observation in natural settings. Quantitative not try to alter behavior or the environment; research typically uses standardized, structured they simply record what they see. In laboratory methods involving numerical measurements of observation, researchers observe and record behavior or performance. behavior in a controlled environment, such as a Self-Reports: Diaries, Visual Techniques, laboratory. By observing all participants under Interviews, and Questionnaires the same conditions, investigators can more clearly identify any differences in behavior not The simplest form of self-report is a diary or attributable to the environment log. Adolescents may be asked, for example, to record what they eat each day or the times Both kinds of observation can provide valuable when they feel depressed. In studying young descriptions of behavior, but they have children, parental self-reports—diaries, limitations. For one, they do not explain why journals, interviews, or questionnaires—are people behave as they do, though the commonly used, often together with other observers may suggest interpretations. Then, methods, such as videotaping or recording. too, an observer’s presence can alter behavior. Visual representation techniques—asking When people know they are being watched, participants to draw or paint or to provide they may act differently. Finally, there is a risk maps or graphs that illuminate their experience of observer bias: the researcher’s tendency to —can avoid reliance on verbal skills interpret data to fit expectations or to emphasize some aspects and minimize others In a face-to-face or telephone interview, researchers ask questions about attitudes, Observer Bias- any expectations, beliefs, or opinions, or behavior. In a structured personal preferences of a researcher that interview, each participant is asked the same unintentionally influence their findings. set of questions. An open-ended interview is more flexible; the interviewer can vary the topics and order of questions and can ask naturalistic observation- research method in follow-up questions based on the responses. To which behavior is studied in natural settings reach more people and to protect their privacy, without intervention or manipulation. researchers sometimes distribute a printed or online questionnaire, which participants fill out Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) laboratory observation- research method in would not emerge under the more impersonal which all participants are observed under the conditions of quantitative research same controlled conditions. qualitative research tends to be less rigorous Behavioral and Performance Measures and more subject to bias than quantitative research. Because samples are often small and For quantitative research, investigators usually not random, results are less typically use more objective measures of generalizable and replicable than the results of behavior or performance instead of, or in quantitative research. The large volume of data addition to, self-reports or observation. Tests makes analysis and interpretation time- and other behavioral and neuropsychological consuming, and the quality of the findings and measures may be used to assess abilities, skills, conclusions depends greatly on the skills of the knowledge, competencies, or physiological researcher responses, such as heart rate and brain activity Qualitative data may be analyzed quantitatively Some written tests, such as intelligence tests, —for example, by statistical analysis of compare performance with that of other test- interview transcripts or videotaped takers. Such tests can be meaningful and useful observations to see how many times certain only if they are both valid (the tests measure themes or behaviors occur. Conversely, the abilities they claim to measure) and reliable quantitative data may be illuminated by (the results are reasonably consistent from one qualitative research—for example, by time to another). To avoid bias, tests must be interviews designed to examine the standardized, that is, given and scored by the motivations and attitudes of children who make same methods and criteria for all test-takers high scores on achievement tests Now, sophisticated imaging instruments, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS (PET), make it possible to see the brain in action, and the new field of cognitive neuroscience is linking our understanding of cognitive functioning with what happens in the brain EVALUATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Case Study - study of a single subject, such as qualitative research can examine a question in an individual or family. great depth and detail, and the research framework can readily be revised in the light of Case studies are particularly useful when new data. Findings of qualitative research can studying something relatively rare, when it be a rich source of insights into attitudes and simply is not possible to find a large enough behavior. The interactive relationship between group of people with the characteristic in investigators and participants can humanize the question to conduct a traditional laboratory research process and reveal information that study. Case studies offer useful, in-depth Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) information. They can explore sources of Correlations are expressed in terms of direction behavior and can test treatments, and they (positive or negative) and magnitude (degree) suggest directions for further research Studies show a positive, or direct, correlation case studies cannot explain behavior with between televised violence and aggression. certainty or make strong causal statements That is, children who watch more violent because there is no way to test their television tend to fight more than children who conclusions watch less violent television. Two variables have a negative, or inverse, correlation if, as one increases, the other decreases. Studies show a negative correlation between amount of schooling and the risk of developing Ethnographic Study - in-depth study of a dementia (mental deterioration) due to culture, which uses a combination of methods Alzheimer’s disease in old age. In other words, including participant observation. the less education, the more dementia An ethnographic study seeks to describe the Correlations are reported as numbers ranging pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, from −1.0 (a perfect negative relationship) to technology, arts, and traditions that make up a +1.0 (a perfect positive relationship). Perfect society’s way of life. In a way, it is like a case correlations are rare. The closer a correlation study of a culture. Ethnographic research can comes to +1.0 or −1.0, the stronger the be qualitative, quantitative, or both. It uses a relationship, either positive or negative. A combination of methods, including informal, correlation of zero means that the variables unstructured interviewing and participant have no relationship observation. Although strong correlations suggest possible Participant Observation- research method in cause-and-effect relationships, these are which the observer lives with the people or merely hypotheses and need to be examined participates in the activity being observed and tested critically. We cannot be sure from a Because of ethnographers’ involvement in the positive correlation between televised violence events or societies they are observing, their and aggressiveness that watching televised findings are especially open to observer bias. violence causes aggression; we can conclude On the positive side, ethnographic research can only that the two variables are related. It is help overcome cultural biases in theory and possible that the causation goes the other way: research aggressive behavior may lead children to watch more violent programs. Or a third variable— Correlational Study- research design intended perhaps an inborn predisposition toward to discover whether a statistical relationship aggressiveness or a violent living environment between variables exists. —may cause a child both to watch violent A correlational study seeks to determine programs and to act aggressively. The only way whether a correlation, or statistical to show with certainty that one variable causes relationship, exists between variables, another is through experimentation—a method phenomena that change or vary among people that, when studying human beings, is not or can be varied for purposes of research. always possible for practical or ethical reasons. Document shared on https://www.docsity.com/en/developmental-psychology-notes-chapter-1-3-diane-papalia/10819518/ Downloaded by: mikaela-beatriz-espiritu ([email protected]) experiment - rigorously controlled, replicable Operational Definition- definition stated solely procedure in which the researcher manipulates in terms of the operations or procedures used variables to assess the effect of one on the to produce or measure a phenomenon. other. random assignment - assignment of Groups and Variables participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of An experimental group consists of people who being placed in any group. are to be exposed to the experimental manipulation or treatment—the phenomenon Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments the researcher wants to study. Afterward, the When, for practical or ethical reasons, it is effect of the treatment will be measured one or impossible to conduct a true experiment, a more times to find out what changes, if any, it natural experiment, also called a quasi- caused. A control group consists of people who experiment, may provide a way of studying are similar to the experimental group but do certain events. A natural experiment compares not receive the experimental treatment or may people who have been accidentally “assigned” receive a different treatment. An experiment to separate groups by circumstances of life— may include one or more of each type of group. one group who were exposed, say, to famine or If the experimenter wants to compare the HIV or superior education, and another group effects of different treatments (say, of two who were not. A natural experiment, despite its methods of teaching), the overall sample may name, is actually a correlational study because be divided into treatment groups, each of controlled manipulation of variables and which receives one of the treatments under random assignment to treatment groups are study. To ensure objectivity, some experiments, not possible particularly in medical research, use double- blind proced