Biological Psychology and Learning Theories PDF

lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Biological Psychology and learning theories Edexcel Psychology AS/A - Level (Shree Cutchi Leva Patel Samaj School and College) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any colleg...

lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Biological Psychology and learning theories Edexcel Psychology AS/A - Level (Shree Cutchi Leva Patel Samaj School and College) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Learning Theories and Development Introduction; Learning can be defined as a process that leads to relatively stable behavioral change. When we learn, we change the way we see our environment, the way we interpret information, and ultimately the way we interact or behave. Learning theories are associated with the behaviorist approach and the work of pioneering psychologists such as John B. Watson (1878-1958), B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) and Albert Bandura (born 1925) who believed that the focus of psychology should be on observable behaviors, as internal moods/thoughts are too subjective and untestable. This approach dominated early 20th C. psychological research. Learning theory has its basis within behaviorism, an approach/perspective within psychology that emphasizes ‘nurture’- the importance of understanding how behavior is shaped by the environment around us- rather than biological mechanisms within us (nature). By noting how behavior is shaped by environment rather than biology, such theorists emphasize the way in which a human baby is effectively ‘tabula rasa’- a blank slate, which external forces can then shape and mold accordingly. Classical Conditioning – Learning Theories Classical conditioning is learning by association. A stimulus is any feature of the environment that affects behavior. When we pair a new stimulus with an existing stimulus-response link, we learn to associate the two stimuli and respond in a similar manner to both. Ex. your cat anticipates being fed when you take a can of food from the cupboard. To explain the process of classical conditioning, you need to be aware of several key terms: Key Terms; Neutral stimulus (NS) - An event that does not produce a response. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - An event that produces an innate, unlearned reflex response. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - An event that produces a learned response Unconditioned response (UCR) - An innate, unlearned reflex behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Response (CR) - A learned physical reflex behavior that an organism produces when exposed to a conditioned stimulus. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 The classical conditioning process was found by Pavlov and his work on dogs. The process: An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces and unconditioned response (UCR) Food Dog salivates The UCS is then paired with a neutral stimulus (NS) which still gives the UCR Food + Bell Dog Salivates After a number of pairings, the NS becomes conditioned (CS), this means it produces the response without the UCS, it is a conditioned response (CR) Bell Dog salivates Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Stimulus generalization and discrimination Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the CS to produce the same behavior to a similar stimulus after the response has been conditioned. Ex. your cat may come running to any tin being opened in the kitchen, and not just cat food. Generalization here suggests that the stimulus triggering a reaction does not have to be the exact one involved in the process of learning, but that the more similar it is, the more likely it will produce a conditioned response. It is also possible that discrimination can occur, meaning that over a period of time, learning only occurs in response to a specific stimulus. Ex. your cat may only respond to a can opening at a certain time of day, or only responds to a can of food, not a glass jar. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction is the removal (death) of a behavior. If the CS (sound of a can opening) is continuously presented without any food being paired with it, the cat will gradually learn to disassociate the two stimuli- and so will not salivate on hearing a can opening. However, this association may not be entirely lost. If the tin is once again paired with food following extinction, the cat will quickly learn to associate the food with the tin. This accelerated form of learning is known as spontaneous recovery and means that extinction is not the same thing as ‘unlearning’. While the response may disappear, it has certainly not been eradicated. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Pavlov’s (1927) experiment with salivation in dogs His landmark discovery came as a result of his experiment with salivation in dogs. He found that when a dog encounters the stimulus of food, saliva starts to pour from the salivary glands- saliva is required to make food easier to swallow, and also contains enzymes to break down certain compounds in the food. While carrying out his experiments, Pavlov became involved in studying reflex reactions as he observed that the dogs drooled and produced saliva without the proper stimulus. He hypothesized that the dogs were reacting to the lab coats of his assistants- Each time the dogs were presented with food, the assistant presenting the food was wearing a lab coat. In essence the dogs were responding as if food was on its way in the presence of a lab coat. In a sequence of experiments, Pavlov tried to establish how the two phenomena were linked. He created a soundproofed lab to see if the presentation of precise stimuli would evoke a response in conditions that ensured no direct contact between the dogs and the experimenter. Pavlov knew that food (UCS) would lead to salivation in the mouth of an animal (UCR). He used a neutral stimulus- an item that in itself would not elicit a response Ex. a metronome. Over several learning trials the dog was presented with the ticking of the metronome immediately before the food appeared. If the metronome was ticking in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the metronome with food. After a while, just at the sound of the metronome, they responded by drooling. Pavlov concluded that environmental stimuli that previously had not relation to a reflex action Ex. the sound of a metronome could, through repeated pairings, trigger a salivation reflex and that through the process of associative learning (conditioning) the CS leads to a CR. Having established the existence of this associative learning, Pavlov wished to establish the reliability of his findings. He set out to see if the same system of learning would work with neutral stimuli Ex. the presentation of a vanilla odor, and a visual test involving a rotating disc being seen prior to the food being given. Pavlov then went on to pair a further NS with the CS Ex. a shape or color (CS2) with the sound of a metronome (CS1), and found that higher order conditioning was possible. He also found that dogs showed stimulus generalization to sounds of a similar tone, but were able to discriminate between sounds that were of a quite different tone. The more similarity there was between a new NS and the CS, the greater the amount of drooling from the dog. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Classical Conditioning in the Classroom The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia. For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate the school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher. Evaluation Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment, and supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment). A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it's based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments. For example, Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell. Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. Breaking complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. However, some would argue that the reductionist view lacks validity. Thus, while reductionism is useful, it can lead to incomplete explanations. A lot of research uses animals – does not take into account that humans reason and understand and may be less influenced. Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior. This is because a complex behavior is broken down into smaller stimulus-response units of behavior. Classical conditioning only explains how we learn new reflexes, it does not explain how we learn new voluntary behavior, unlike operant conditioning which explains how reinforcements teach new voluntary behaviors, so reducing the validity of it as an explanation of learning. Applications Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Classical Conditioning has always had huge applications for therapy, especially the treatment of “irrational” or “instinctive” problems like phobias and addictions. Aversion therapy works by associating a dysfunctional behavior (like drinking) with a UCR (like vomiting) to produce a new CS. If successful, the CS will produce a nauseous CR whenever drink is present. This sort of therapy works best when the patient is willing and wants the therapy to succeed. Systematic desensitization works by associating a troubling CR (like a phobia) with the CS (like a spider) in a relaxing, safe environment. Gradually, the patient stops associating fear with the spider. The spider goes back to being a NS, producing no reaction. This is extinction. The theory focuses entirely on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. It is possible some people are born with predispositions towards behaviors, rather than learning them through conditioning. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning involves learning through consequence-Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. If we get punished for a particular behavior, it is likely that we will not repeat that behavior in the future. However, if we show a behavior that is followed by a positive experience, maybe praise or some physical reward, it is likely that this behavior will be repeated. The ABC model Antecedent: a stimulus triggers behavior Ex. lights, noise Behavior: can observe what happens Ex. pressing lever Consequence: what happens after the behavior is shown Ex. reward or punishment such as food or shock Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 The stimulus-response association is only repeated or learned if the consequence of the pairing is a positive one- a negative consequence would weaken the stimulus-response link. Therefore, if the rat or pigeon is given something pleasurable Ex. a food pellet following a desired behavior Ex. lever pressing, they are more likely to repeat this behavior in future 🡪 this is known as positive reinforcement. Reinforcement is when the desired behavior is rewarded. This makes it more likely to be repeated. Positive reinforcement rewards the desired behavior by adding something pleasant – food, affection, a compliment, money. Negative reinforcement rewards the desired behavior by removing something unpleasant – taking away pain or distress, stopping criticism, cancelling a fine. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Punishment is when undesirable behavior produces unpleasant consequences. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens the behavior by presenting something unpleasant/painful whenever the behavior is shown. Therefore, if a rat presses a lever and is given an electric shock, it will stop pressing the lever to make sure it does not get another electric shock in the future. Like reinforcement, punishment can be both negative and positive. Positive punishment, which punishes the undesirable behavior by adding something unpleasant (a shock, a criticism, copying out lines, spanking, beating), and negative punishment, which punishes by removing something pleasant (being 'grounded', deducting money, taking away the Xbox). Often, punishment combines both types: a detention involves adding something unpleasant (work) and taking away something pleasant (your break time). Positive punishment - Ex. a child behaves badly at a party. The parents shout at and scold the child. This reduces the showing of a behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus (shouting and scolding) when the behavior occurs. Negative punishment - Ex. if a dog jumps on a person to greet them but the person walks away just as the dog jumps, they are removing their attention from the dog, and so will reduce the frequency of jumping in the future. Summary for operant conditioning Types of reinforcers There’s also primary reinforcement, which is when the reward is something we want naturally – a basic need such as food, warmth or affection. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Secondary reinforcement is a reward we have learned to value, something that can buy a basic need – like money or tokens. Token Economy A token economy is based on the principles of operant conditioning. It has the aim of trying to encourage desirable behavior through a system of reward, and reduce undesirable behavior through withdrawal of reward (punishment). The tokens used in such a system are secondary reinforcers as these are exchangeable for primary reinforcers. The tokens are only given in return for showing the desired behavior. The more tokens saved, the better the reward. Therefore, through selective reinforcement, desirable behaviors are encouraged and undesirable behavior extinguished. Token economies have been implemented in institutions such as schools and prisons. Ex. students may be allocated tokens for good behavior such as good attendance, punctuality, high test scores etc. These can then be exchanged for items in the school shop or perhaps a school trip. Schedules of Reinforcement This is because when and how often you reinforce behavior can also have a very large impact on the strength and likelihood of a behavioral response. A schedule of reinforcement is a ‘rule’ that dictates the situations in which a behavior will be reinforced. It is quite possible that in some situations a behavior might be reinforced every time it is seen (continuous reinforcement), although more realistically in Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 the context of day-to-day life, a behavior might be reinforced some of the time (partial reinforcement) The four schedules of partial reinforcement are: Fixed interval - the rewarding of a first correct response only after a preset amount of time has passed Ex. a rat in a Skinner box gets a food pellet for pressing the lever only after a 30-second time delay. Learning takes longer, but the response rate of the animal is higher towards the end of the learning. Additionally, with this schedule, there is a scalloping effect (a dramatic drop off in response immediately after reinforcement) Variable interval - the rewarding of the first correct response after a set amount of time has passed, after which a new time period is set. Learning is still noticeable and the scalloping effect is not seen here. Fixed ratio- where a response is reinforced only after a specified no. of responses Ex. providing a food pellet to a rat after it presses a lever 8 times. Variable ratio- a response may be reinforced after a set no. of correct responses is given. After this has been achieved, the no. of correct responses in order for reinforcement to be given changes. Skinner argued that this form of schedule is good for maintaining behavior. Superstition in the pigeon (1948) B. F. Skinner Eight pigeons were starved to make them hungry then put in a cage. At regular intervals every 15 seconds, a food dispenser would swing into the cage for 5 seconds then swing out again. When the food was due to appear, the pigeons started showing strange behaviors, such as turning anticlockwise who making swaying motions. Skinner concluded the pigeons were repeating whatever behavior they had been in the middle of doing when the reinforcement was first offered to them. Because the food kept reappearing, this senseless behavior was strengthened. This is like a “superstition” when humans imagine that, by doing something senseless (knocking on wood, crossing their fingers) they can make something pleasant happen. Skinner used 8 pigeons who were kept at 75% of their normal body weight. He put the pigeons, individually, in an experimental cage that contained a food hopper. A timer was used to release the food in the hopper for the pigeons to eat. Two researchers independently noted the behavior of the pigeons in relation to the food hopper. One pigeon turned anticlockwise and made two or three turns between the food reinforcement (1). Two other pigeons displayed a pendulum motion with their bodies in response to the random food reward (1). Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Skinner concluded that pigeons learned superstitious behavior as they behaved as if there was an association between the behavior and food reward. Strength (+) One strength is that he only used 8 pigeons so he kept the number of animals to a minimum, this is in line with the Scientific Procedures Act (1986) which states the smallest number of animals needed for the research should be used. Weakness (-) One ethical issue is that he kept the pigeons at 75% of their normal weight causing them to be hungry which can be seen as unethical as researchers should use other means than deprivation if possible. Skinner used pigeons in his study to investigate how humans learn through reinforcement. Humans and pigeons have differences in terms of genes and their brain structure so the results of his study lack generalizability to humans. Evaluation What was accidentally observed by Pavlov is now a universally accepted principle in psychology. It has in many ways remained unchanged since it was formulated by Pavlov and remains one of the most important principles in psychology’s history it formed the basis for what would become known as the behavioral or learning approach. Pavlov greatly influenced John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, and continues to inspire psychological research to this day. Between 1997-2000, more than 220 articles appeared in scientific journals citing Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning. His contributions to psychology have helped shape the discipline and are likely to continue to shape our understanding of human behavior well into the future. A major strength of operant conditioning is that it can explain a wide assortment of behaviors, from addiction to language acquisition. A substance or activity can become addictive if it is rewarding i.e., if it is pleasurable or enjoyable. Skinner would argue that a child’s correct utterances are positively reinforced Ex. a child says ‘juice’ and the parent smiles and gives the child some juice as a result. Obviously, the child will find the outcome of saying this word rewarding and this in turn will aid the child’s language development. The theory of operant conditioning also has practical applications- token economies have been used successfully in psychiatric hospitals, schools and prisons. Both classical and operant conditioning claim to be scientific- concepts can be defined, precisely measured and controlled, as illustrated by both Pavlov’s and Skinner’s lab Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 experiments on animals. As only observable behavior is measured, it could be argued that this is an objective measure. Moreover, such experiments can be replicated- allowing for reliability to be assessed. However, this controlled experiment is not a natural way to observe behavior. The contrived and artificial nature of such experiments questions the ecological validity of the findings and the extent they can be applied to real-life settings. A no. of criticisms can be levied against learning theories- of particular significance is that of reductionism 🡪 reducing all behavior to learning through association or reinforcement. Both theories greatly underestimate the role of biological factors, including genetic differences and instincts, on behavior. It could be said that Skinner’s observations only account for observable behaviors and do not account for any unobservable behaviors Ex. mental and emotional states, such as anger or happiness, making his explanations limited and oversimplified. Some would argue that a major weakness is the use of animal research on which a large proportion of theories are based. This raises the issue of extrapolating findings from animals and applying them to humans. Animals obviously have different anatomy and physiology and their day-to-day experiences are very different from humans Ex. animals do not reflect on their learning experiences with logic, patience or feelings the way humans do. A fundamental difference between a rat and a human is language- a human can stop a behavior simply by being told that no more rewards will be given. For a rat, this is obviously not an option and so it will continue to press a lever for a food pellet a long time after the food has stopped. The use of lab experiments with animals in classical and operant conditioning also raises a number of ethical issues. It could be argued that Pavlov’s research caused unnecessary suffering to the dogs in his experiment. This needs to be weighed against the benefits of the research and whether or not the ends justify the means. Others may argue that the research was justified as it furthered out understanding of behavior. Both theories can be viewed as strongly deterministic with behaviors largely being governed by environmental forces. If individuals are largely the product of their environment, it suggests that they cannot control their own actions and in turn cannot be responsible for them. Moreover, it has potentially sinister implications, allowing for others to control the behavior of an individual through conditioning mechanisms, raising further ethical issues linked to social control. Skinner, however, viewed this as potentially positive as behaviorist principles could be used to create a better world. Social Learning Theories Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Social learning theory is learning through observation and is largely attributed to the work of Albert Bandura (born 1925). The approach believe that humans and animals learn by observing the others around them and subsequently imitating or copying the behavior. Individuals that are observed are called models. There are four important points to be considered: The person whose behavior is observed is the ‘model’ (the term ‘modelling’ is often used instead of observational learning). Learning is spontaneous without any intention to learn or to teach. Both specific behaviors (Ex. aggression) and more general, emotional behaviors (Ex. fear of spiders) can be modelled. There is a difference between learning (acquisition or modelling) of behavior and performance (imitation) of that behavior. Self-efficacy: Linked to the idea of motivation, this is the belief/confidence that performing an action will lead to a desired reward. This is strengthened each time the aggressive action leads to a positive outcome, as the child gets more confident that they can use aggression successfully. For learning to take place, Bandura believed that the following criteria had to be met: 1. The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences others imitating it. 2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer. - Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to. 3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we cannot. - This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it. 4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior. The rewards and punishments that follow a behavior are considered by the observer. People around the child respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a modeled behavior consequences is rewarding, then the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. If vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important to the observer, then the behavior will not be imitated. In Bandura’s study, children who had seen a modeled being punished for aggression reproduced the model’s aggression only when they were offered an incentive. Evaluation: - The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of mediational processes. - For example, Social Learning Theory is able to explain many more complex social behaviors (such as gender roles and moral behavior) than models of learning based on simple reinforcement. - As with other learning theories, a strength of SLT is its commitment to scientific research methods. The theory is based on lab-based research methods that ensure reliability and allow inferences about cause and effect to be made. - This can also be viewed as a weakness as the studies have taken place in rather artificial settings, bringing into question the generalizability and ecological validity of the research. - Unlike classical and operant conditioning, SLT does allow for individual differences and acknowledges that cognitive and motivational factors can influence behavior as factors, as reflected in the 4 processes suggested by Bandura- through attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. - The theory has also made a significant contribution to the psychology of aggression and gender development, and has formed the basis for a range of treatments such as phobias. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 - Modelling - based therapies, for example, can be used with children or adults, who may find behavior therapies using direct conditioning difficult. Typically, modelling therapies involve learning through the observation and imitation of others. Having a positive role model can give individuals something to aim for, allowing them to change their behavior in line with their role model. This role model may be the therapist or someone the individual already knows. - SLT sits on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, suggesting that the environment is the dominant influence on behavior. Ex. in the psychology of attraction there appear to be many similarities in what men and women perceive as attractive attributes in the opposite sex. Men tend to rank youthfulness and signs of fertility as highly attractive attributes, whereas women select status and resources as the most attractive features. It is possible that such differences are learned via the process of social learning, but it could equally be the case that evolutionary demands have favored certain features over time. - SLT obviously ignores such factors and other biological influences on behavior. Although SLT appears on the surface to be less deterministic than the other learning theories, the approach generally does not acknowledge the influence of free will. While cognitive and motivational factors may appear to offer freedom of choice in behavior, it should be stressed that an individual’s motivation is the product of prior learning and that therefore the choice over their actions are not free. - This approach can also be accused of reductionism by breaking down highly complex behaviors to merely observational learning. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models Bandura, Ross and Ross Study (1961) Aim: To demonstrate that if children were passive witnesses to an aggressive display of an adult, they would imitate the aggressive behavior when given the opportunity. Procedure: Children between the age of 3-5 years both male and female were used in the experiment. They were 72 in total with 36 boys and 36 girls. The role models were one adult male and one adult female. The design of the experiment had 3 conditions; the group exposed to aggression, passive model and the control group. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 The children were tested on their levels of aggression and then matched based on their similar levels of aggression. The aggression displayed in the aggressive condition involved striking a bobo doll with a mallet, kicking and even verbal aggression. - The children were then frustrated intentionally by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to touch or play with before being taken to a room full of other boys which had the bobo doll in it. - The study showed how behavior could be learnt through observing even without any reinforcements. - One third of the children from the aggressive group replicated the same verbal aggression as displayed by the adult model, none of the non-aggressive condition children displayed any verbal aggression. - Boys imitated more physical aggressiveness but verbal aggression was similar between the children in the aggressive condition. Results: The children in the aggressive model condition made more aggressive responses than the children in the non-aggressive model condition. Boys made more aggressive responses than girls. The boys in the aggressive model conditions showed more aggressive responses if the model was male than if the model was female. The girls in the aggressive model condition showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Conclusion: Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of another person. The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory. This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children. Bandura (1965) Bobo doll experiment with vicarious reinforcement Aim: To investigate whether children would be more aggressive when they viewed a model rewarded for their aggression i.e., to investigate the role of vicarious reinforcement. Procedure: The 33 male and 33 female participants (all from Stanford University Nursery School) were randomly allocated to one of 3 conditions (11 boys and 11 girls each): Model rewarded for aggressive behavior Model punished for aggressive behavior No consequences (control) The children followed a researcher into a room. They were told that before they could go to a ‘surprise playroom’ they might want to watch some TV. - The TV was showing a program approx. 5 min long in which a model exhibited aggressive behavior. Depending on the condition, the model was rewarded, punished, or, in the control group, there was no response to their aggression. - In the film, initially the model walked up to the Bobo doll and ordered him to ‘clear the way’. The model then stared at the doll. The model then showed 4 distinct aggressive responses along with verbal statements (that were not considered to be in the child’s normal verbal repertoire). - The model put the Bobo doll on its side and sat on it, punching its nose and saying ‘pow right in the nose, boom, boom’. - The Bobo doll was then allowed to come back up again before the model hit it on the head with a mallet, accompanied by the statement ‘sockeroo…stay down’. - The model kicked the doll about the room, and this was interspersed with the comment ‘fly away’ - The model threw rubber balls. Every time the model hit the Bobo doll with the balls the model would shout ‘bang’ Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 - This order of behavior was repeated twice during the program. - In the closing scene of the program the model was either rewarded or punished (or nothing happened). Conditions of the experiment: Model rewarded condition - a second adult walked up to the model with a soft drink and some sweets. The adult then stated to the model that he was a ‘strong champion’ and that the aggressive behavior was seen as deserving ‘considerable treats’ While the model was eating the sweets and drinking the soft drink the second adult made further comments that positively reinforced the aggressive behavior. Model punished condition - the second adult was seen walking towards the model shaking his finger disapprovingly, saying ‘hey there, you big bully. You quit picking on that clown. I won’t tolerate it’ As the model drew back from the second adult, he tripped and fell. The second adult sat on the model and it him with a rolled-up newspaper, reminding him of how bad his aggressive behavior was. The model then ran off cowering, and the second adult said ‘if I catch you doing that again, you big bully, I’ll give you a hard spanking. You quit acting that way’ No consequence (control condition)- the same film was shown as in the previous two conditions. However, the closing scene of this film contained no form of reinforcement. Following the exposure to the closing scene, the child participant was taken to another room. In it was a Bobo doll, a mallet, three balls, a peg board, dart guns, some plastic farm animals, and a doll’s house with dolls and furniture. For a total of 10 minutes the children were observed in this room, with behavior being recorded every 5 seconds. Two observers recorded observations but neither had any knowledge of which condition the children were assigned to. Results: Bandura’s results showed that children were more likely to imitate aggressive behavior if the model was positively rewarded. Boys also performed more imitated responses than girls, supporting Bandura’s hypothesis. Conclusion: Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Children were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors if the model was positively reinforced and vice versa. Seeing another person receive rewards for their behavior would motivate another person to reproduce the same behavior, whereas observing a behavior being punished would discourage another person to repeat such behavior. Evaluation Bandura’s study has undoubtedly made a huge contribution to our understanding about how children learn to acquire behaviors through observing those around them. Bandura has received an Association of Psychological Science (APS) lifetime achievement award and was also named in the top 5 most eminent 20th century psychologists by the Review of General Psychology. Following the publication of Bandura’s findings that children exposed to aggression will initiate the behavior, there was substantial debate in 1960s America, from lawmakers to broadcasters, regarding the effect of TV violence on children’s behavior. This debate continues to this day. Although there is significant experimental evidence to suggest that media aggression can influence behavior, the findings of research employing different methodologies do not support such a link being made, particularly in the long term. Bandura’s lab experiment has a good degree of control and can easily be replicated. Moreover, the study did not rely on a sole observer and only agreed behaviors between observers were used, so good inter-rater reliability (the degree of agreement between two different raters of behavior was 0.90) was found. Furthermore, Bandura’s later research obtained similar findings showing the influence of modeled behavior on aggression. The study does therefore have reliability. Criticisms Bandura only studied the immediate impact of observing the aggressive actions of a role model. What could the long-term changes in behavior be? We are unable to answer this question as the participants were never followed up. Bandura, by his own admission, has trained individuals to be aggressive but we will never know if any of the children applied this learned behavior beyond the study. The internal validity of the experiment is questionable- the Bobo was an object designed to be punched. Some children passed comments before the study such as ‘Ok mum there is the doll we have to hit’. This strongly casts doubt on the overall validity of behavior shown by the children, and questions whether it was ‘observational learning’ that was Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 really the cause of the behavior change in the study. These demand characteristics weaken the integrity of the study. It could be argued that the aggressive behaviors displayed by the children were a result of obedience. They copied the adult because they interpreted their behavior as instructions- the children were therefore only trying to please the adults as this was the expected behavior. Cultural bias - the children all attended the nursery at the Stanford University and as a result represented only the upper-middle class white population of the time; the study therefore lacks generalizability. It is likely that these children were more inclined to be compliant and responsive to the model’s behavior during the experiment. Wortman, Loftus and Weaver (1998) argue that Bandura’s study was unethical and morally wrong, suggesting that the participants were ‘manipulated’ to respond in an aggressive way. They argue that the children were ‘trained to be aggressive’ as a result of methods of the study Ex. agitation and dissatisfaction were incited through the taunts given and the fact that they were not allowed to play with certain toys. Evaluation - Variation study (1965) The criticisms levelled at Bandura’s original study can also be applied here. Bandura himself acknowledged that mere exposure to a model does not provide sufficient conditions for observational learning to take place. The majority of children did not reproduce the behavior exhibited by the model even when positive incentives were presented, suggesting that the children’s motivations and previous experiences prior to observation may have influenced their response to the model. The way in which stimuli were presented to the observers may affect the degree to which they imitate the behavior-a lengthy or complex sequence of observation could mean that children only attend to part of it. Furthermore, younger children are more likely to imitate motor actions than verbal actions. Boys performed more imitated aggression than girls in line with findings of the original Bobo study. Bandura suggested that this reflects willingness on the boys’ part to exhibit aggression rather than identifying with a particular role model. Such behavior is dependent on the different reinforcement histories experienced by girls and boys- girls are more likely to be negatively reinforced for displaying aggression than boys. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Learning theories and phobia Phobia is an overwhelming and debilitate fear of an object, place, situation, feeling and animals. It is an anxiety disorder characterized by a complex behavior that when compared to a fear has very serious effects on the individual both emotionally and socially. There are 3 different kinds of phobia; Specific phobia - a phobia of animals Ex. Snakes, inanimate objects like heights, illness like cancer Social phobia - fear of eating in public places Agoraphobia - fear of places of assembly How the three learning theories may explain how phobias are acquired and maintained; 1. Classical Conditioning Learning therapists believe that phobias are a result of learning and can originate through a process very similar to classical conditioning. A phobia is acquired through pairing/association of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus which leads to an unconditioned response. So, for example, anything which becomes associated with a terrifying experience may thus become a CS and may itself induce fear and anxiety. The diagram below shows how a behavior therapist might interpret the way in which a person’s rat phobia could develop. - Naturalistic observations have demonstrated that classical conditioning is a mechanism through which fears and phobias develop. A study by Dollinger et al 1984, compared child survivors of a severe lightning strike to a control group and established that the survivors group demonstrated more numerous and intense fear of thunder, lightning and Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 tornadoes. However, it is important to note that not all phobias are as a result of classical conditioning. - Kleinknecht (1982) studied a group of members of the American Tarantula Society. Those who reported their fears of Tarantulas none had reported a direct traumatic experience associated with various animal phobia and came to the conclusion that only 23% of the of these reported direct conditioning experiences. In 1988, DiNardo et al studied 16 dog phobic and noted that 56% of them reported conditioning experiences. A more common phobia is that of lifts, the classical conditioning explanation proposes that first a panic attack occurs, in response for instance, to being trapped in a lift. This results in an association being established between anxiety and that lift. Subsequently, this anxiety becomes generalized to all lifts. Consequently, the person will actively avoid using lifts in the future. 2. Operant conditioning According to operant conditioning, phobias develop as a result of reinforcement of fear response to objects or situations. In terms of the previous example above regarding phobia of lifts, the avoidance of lifts is further reinforced by the reduction in anxiety experienced when the person adopts alternative strategies, such as using the stairs. Any future avoidance of lifts will give positive reinforcement through feeling relaxed, thus motivating the individual to avoid similar situations in the future and as such the phobia continues and is maintained. 3. Social Learning Theory Learning occurs from observing others and the consequences of others’ behavior. One phobia learnt from SLT is arachnophobia - fear of spiders. The key aspects of its application are as follows: Observation - A child watches an older sibling respond to finding a spider in their bed. The older sibling runs out of the bedroom screaming in show of fear and shaking. Vicarious reinforcement - The parents may try to make the older sibling feel better by comforting them. Imitation - Later when the observing child finds a spider on their bed, they are likely to repeat the behavior they had seen earlier. They will scream, shout and shake. Reinforcement - the observing child’s parents provide comfort. They will console the child reinforcing the fear. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Mineka and Zinbarg’s study 2006 offers support for vicarious reinforcement. It was a case study of a boy with phobia for vomiting (emetophobia) who witnessed his grandfather vomit while dying. The phobia was so intense he tried to commit suicide at some point when he felt nauseous and feared being sick. Dubi et al. 2008, observed toddlers aged 15-20 months show fear and avoidance behaviors to both fear relevant such as rubber spider or snake and fear irrelevant objects such as rubber mushrooms following observations of negative reactions from their mothers. It was concluded that the maternal modelling impacted on young children’s fear and avoidance behavior. Treatment for phobia Behaviorists believe that as phobias are learned behavior then they can also be unlearned using the same principle from learning theories. They do not assume that sets of symptoms reflect single underlying causes. Systematic Desensitization This type of treatment is based on the principles of classical conditioning. It is used mainly in the treatment of phobias and anxiety disorders. The aim is to extinguish an undesirable behaviour by substituting the response. It is a gradual exposure to an anxiety producing stimulus paired with relaxation to extinguish the response of fear or anxiety. This is done through reciprocal inhibition; two contrasting emotions cannot co-exist; you cannot be relaxed and scared at the same time. Systematic desensitization is so called because instead of being directly exposed to the feared object, the patient is only gradually exposed to it. Systematic desensitization takes place over a number of session depending on the strength of the phobia and the client’s ability to relax. Freudian Theory One of the most important psychological approaches to understanding personality is based on the theorizing of the Austrian physician and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939), who founded what today is known as the psychodynamic approach to understanding personality. Freud was influenced by the work of the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825- 1893) who had been interviewing patients (almost all women) who were experiencing what was at the time known as hysteria. Although it is no longer used to describe a psychological disorder, hysteria at the time referred to a set of personality and physical symptoms that included chronic pain, seizures, fainting, and paralysis. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Charcot could find no biological reason for the symptoms. For example, some women experienced a loss of feeling in their hands and yet not in their arms, and this seemed impossible given that the nerves in the arms are the same as those in the hands. Under hypnosis, Charcot and Freud found that many of the hysterical patients reported having experienced a traumatic sexual experience, such as sexual abuse, as children (Dolnick, 1998). Freud and Charcot also found that during hypnosis, the remembering of the trauma was often accompanied by an outpouring of emotion, known as catharsis, and that following the catharsis the patient’s symptoms were frequently reduced in severity. These observations led Freud and Charcot to conclude that these disorders were caused by psychological rather than physiological factors. Features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used these observations to develop his theory regarding the sources of personality and behavior, and his insights are central to the fundamental themes of psychology. In terms of free will, Freud did not believe that we were able to control our own behaviors; rather, he believed that all behaviors are predetermined by motivations that lie outside our awareness, in the unconscious. These forces show themselves in our dreams, in neurotic symptoms such as obsessions, while we are under hypnosis, and in Freudian “slips of the tongue” in which people reveal their unconscious desires in language. Freud argued that we rarely understand why we do what we do, although we can make up explanations for our behaviors after the fact. For Freud the mind was like an iceberg, with many motivations of the unconscious being much larger, but also out of sight, in comparison to the consciousness of which we are aware. In his conceptualization of personality, the most important motivations are unconscious, just as the major part of an iceberg is under water. The three levels of the mind 1. On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. 2. The preconscious consists of all which can be retrieved from memory. 3. The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real cause of most behavior. - Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see. Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious. Life's drives Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, and sex. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido. Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings. When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct. ID, Ego, and Superego Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components: id, ego, and superego, and that the interactions and conflicts among the components create personality (Freud, 1923/1943). According to Freudian theory, the id is the component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive impulses. The id is entirely unconscious, and it drives our most important motivations, including the sexual drive (libido) and the aggressive or destructive drive (Thanatos). According to Freud, the id is driven by the pleasure principle - the desire for immediate gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges. The id is why we smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, view pornography, tell mean jokes about people, and engage in other fun or harmful behaviors, often at the cost of doing more productive activities. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 In stark contrast to the id, the superego represents our sense of morality and thoughts. The superego tells us all the things that we shouldn’t do, or the duties and obligations of society. The superego strives for perfections, and when we fail to live up to its demands, we feel guilty. It is driven by the morality principle. In contrast to the id, which is about the pleasure principle, the function of the ego is based on the reality principle- the idea that we must delay gratification of our basic motivations until the appropriate time with the appropriate outlet. The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of personality. The ego serves as the intermediary between the desires of the id and the constraints of society contained in the superego. We may wish to scream, yell, or hit, and yet our ego normally tells us to wait, reflect, and choose a more appropriate response. Freud believed that psychological disorders, and particularly the experience of anxiety, occur when there is conflict or imbalance among the motivations of the id, ego and superego. When the ego finds that the id is pressing too hard for immediate pleasure, it attempts to correct this problem, often through the use of defense mechanisms - unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and to maintain a positive self-image. Freud believed that the defense mechanisms were essential for effective coping with everyday life, but that any of them could be overused. Type Explanation Example 1. Repression (or Pushing anxiety-arousing People who sexually or denial) thoughts into the unconscious. physically abused in their childhood often repress the memories. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 2. Displacement Diverting threatening impulses A student who is angry at away from the source of the her professor for a low grade anxiety and toward a more lashes out at her roommate, acceptable source who is a safer target of her anger. 3. Projection Disguising threatening impulses A man with powerful by attributing them to others. unconscious sexual desires for women claims that women use him as a sex object. 4. Regression Retreating to an earlier, more A college student who is childlike, and safer stage of worried about an important development. test begins to suck on his finger. 5. Rationalization Generating self-justifying A drama student convinces explanations for our negative herself that getting the part behaviors. in the play wasn’t that important after all. 6. Sublimation Channeling unacceptable sexual A person participates in or aggressive desires into sports to sublimate acceptable activities. aggressive drives. A person creates music or art to sublimate sexual drives. 7. Reaction Making unacceptable Jane is sexually attracted to Formation motivations appear as their exact her friend Jake, but claims in opposite. public that she intensely dislikes him. The most controversial, and least scientifically valid, part of Freudian theory is its explanations of personality development. Freud argued that personality is developed through a series of psychosexual stages, each focusing on pleasure from a different part of the body. Freud believed that sexuality begins in infancy, and that the appropriate resolution of each stage has implications for later personality development. Stage Appropriate ages Description Oral Birth to 18 months Pleasure comes from the mouth in the form of sucking, biting, and chewing. Anal 18 months to 3 years Pleasure comes from bowel and bladder elimination and the constraints of toilet training Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Phallic 3 to 6 years Pleasure comes from the genitals, and the conflict is with sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent Latency 6 years to puberty Sexual feelings are less important Genital Puberty and older If prior stages have been properly resolved, mature sexual orientation develops. In the first of Freud’s proposed stages of psychosexual development, which begins at birth (oral stage) and lasts until about 18 months of age, the focus is on the mouth. During this oral stage, the infant obtains sexual pleasure by sucking and drinking. Infants who receive either too little or too much gratification become fixated or “locked” in the oral stage, and are likely to regress to these points of fixation under stress, even as adults. According to Freud, a child who receives too little oral gratification (Ex. who was underfed or neglected) will become orally dependent as an adult and be likely to manipulate others to fulfill his or her needs rather than becoming independent. On the other hand, the child who was overfed or overly gratified will resist growing up and try to return to the prior state of dependency by acting helpless, demanding satisfaction from others, and acting in a needy way. The anal stage, lasting from about 18 months to 3 years of age is when children first experience psychological conflict. During this stage children desire to experience pleasure through bowel movements, but they are also being toilet trained to delay this gratification. Freud believed that if this toilet training was either too harsh or too lenient, children would become fixated in the anal stage and become likely to regress to this stage under stress as adults. If the child received too little anal gratification (i.e., if the parents had been very harsh about toilet training), the adult personality will be anal retentive— stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. On the other hand, if the parents had been too lenient, the anal expulsive personality results, characterized by a lack of self-control and a tendency toward messiness and carelessness. The phallic stage, which lasts from age 3 to age 6 is when the penis (for boys) and clitoris (for girls) become the primary erogenous zone for sexual pleasure. During this stage, Freud believed that children develop a powerful but unconscious attraction for the opposite-sex parent, as well as a desire to eliminate the same-sex parent as a rival. Freud based his theory of sexual development in boys (the “Oedipus complex”) on the Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother, and then put his own eyes out when he learned what he had done. Freud argued that boys will normally eventually abandon their love of the mother, and instead identify with the father, also taking on the father’s personality characteristics, but that boys who do not successfully resolve the Oedipus complex will experience psychological problems Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 later in life. Although it was not as important in Freud’s theorizing, in girls the phallic stage is often termed the “Electra complex,” after the Greek character who avenged her father’s murder by killing her mother. Freud believed that girls frequently experienced penis envy, the sense of deprivation supposedly experienced by girls because they do not have a penis. The latency stage is a period of relative calm that lasts from about 6 years to 12 years. During this time, Freud believed that sexual impulses were repressed, leading boys and girls to have little or no interest in members of the opposite sex. The fifth and last stage, the genital stage, begins about 12 years of age and lasts into adulthood. According to Freud, sexual impulses return during this time frame, and if development has proceeded normally to this point, the child is able to move into the development of mature romantic relationships. But if earlier problems have not been appropriately resolved, difficulties with establishing intimate love attachments are likely. Psycho-Analysis Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences i.e. make the unconscious conscious. It is only through having a cathartic (healing) experience that the person can be helped and ‘cured’. Psychoanalysis assumptions Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind. Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances. Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma. Treatment focuses on bringing the repressed conflict to consciousness, where the client can deal with it. Psychoanalytic Techniques Psychoanalysis is a therapy as well as a theory. It is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. In psychoanalysis, Freud would have a patient lie on a couch to relax, and he would sit behind them taking notes while they told him about their dreams and childhood memories. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Psychoanalysis would be a lengthy process, involving many sessions with the psychoanalyst. Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the deterministic forces operating in the unconscious, psychoanalysis in its classic form is a lengthy process often involving 2-5 sessions per week for several years. This approach assumes that the reduction of symptoms alone is relatively inconsequential as if the underlying conflict is not resolved, more neurotic symptoms will simply be substituted. The analyst typically is a ‘blank screen,’ disclosing very little about themselves in order that the client can use the space in the relationship to work on their unconscious without interference from outside. The psychoanalyst uses various techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into their behavior and the meanings of symptoms, including ink blots, parapraxes, free association, interpretation (including dream analysis), resistance analysis and transference analysis. Free association A simple technique of psychodynamic therapy, is free association, in which a patient talks of whatever comes into their mind. This technique involves a therapist reading a list of words (Ex. mother, childhood, etc.) and the patient immediately responds with the first word that comes to mind. It is hoped that fragments of repressed memories will emerge in the course of free association. Free association may not prove useful if the client shows resistance, and is reluctant to say what he or she is thinking. On the other hand, the presence of resistance (Ex. an excessively long pause) often provides a strong clue that the client is getting close to some important repressed idea in his or her thinking, and that further probing by the therapist is called for. Freud reported that his free associating patients occasionally experienced such an emotionally intense and vivid memory that they almost relived the experience. This is like a “flashback” from a war or a rape experience. Such a stressful memory, so real it feels like it is happening again, is called an abreaction. If such a disturbing memory occurred in therapy or with a supportive friend and one felt better -relieved or cleansed- later, it would be called a catharsis. Frequently, these intense emotional experiences provided Freud a valuable insight into the patient’s problems. Dream Analysis According to Freud the analysis of dreams is “the royal road to the unconscious” He argued that the conscious mind is like a censor, but it is less vigilant when we are asleep. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 As a result, repressed ideas come to the surface - though what we remember may well have been altered during the dream process. As a result, we need to distinguish between the manifest content and the latent content of a dream. The former is what we actually remember. The latter is what it really means. Freud believed that very often the real meaning of a dream had a sexual significance and in his theory of sexual symbolism he speculates on the underlying meaning of common dream themes. Object relations This is a variation of psychoanalytic theory that diverges from Freud’s belief that humans are motivated by sexual and aggressive drives; suggesting instead that humans are motivated by the need for contact with others-the need to form relationships. The aim of an object relations therapist is to help an individual in therapy uncover mental images that may contribute to any present difficulties in one’s relationships with others and adjust them in ways that may improve interpersonal functioning. In the context of object relations theory, the term ‘objects’ refers not to inanimate entities but to significant others with whom an individual relates, usually one’s mother, father, or primary caregiver. In some cases, the term object may also be used to refer to a part of a person, such as a mother’s breast, or to the mental representations of significant others. Object relations theorists stress the importance of early family interactions, primarily the mother-infant relationship, in personality development. It is believed that infants form mental representations of themselves in relation to others and that these internal images significantly influence interpersonal relationships later in life. Since relationships are at the center of object relations theory, the person-therapist alliance is important to the success of therapy. The term “object relations” refers to the dynamic internalized relationships between the self and significant others (objects). An object relation involves mental representations of: The object as perceived by the self. The self in relation to the object. The relationship between self and object. For example, an infant might think: 1. “My mother is good because she feeds me when I am hungry” (representation of the object). Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 2. “The fact that she takes care of me must mean that I am good” (representation of the self in relation to the object). 3. “I love my mother” (representation of the relationship). Internal objects are formed during infancy through repeated experiences with one’s caregiver. The images do not necessarily reflect reality but are subjectively constructed by an infant’s limited cognitive abilities. In healthy development, these mental representations evolve over time; in unhealthy development, they remain at an immature level. The internal images have enduring qualities and serve as templates for future relationships. Central to object relations theory is the notion of splitting, which can be described as the mental separation of objects into “good” and “bad” parts and the subsequent repression of the “bad” or anxiety-provoking, aspects. Infants’ first experience splitting in their relationship with the primary caregiver: The caregiver is “good” when all the infant’s needs are satisfied and “bad” when they are not. Initially, these two aspects of the object (the caregiver) are separated in the mind of the infant, and a similar process occurs as the infant comes to perceive good and bad parts of the self. If the mother is able to satisfactorily meet the needs of the infant or—in the language of object relations—if the mother is “good enough,” then the child begins to merge both aspects of the mother, and by extension the self, into an integrated whole. If the caregiver does not satisfactorily meet the infant’s needs, the infant may repress the “bad” aspects of the mother and of the self, which can cause difficulty in future relationships. Goals of object relations therapy Object relations therapy focuses on helping individuals identify and address deficits in their interpersonal functioning and explore ways that relationships can be improved. A therapist can help people in therapy understand how childhood object relations impact current emotions, motivations, and relationships and contribute to any problems being faced. Aspects of the self that were split and repressed can be brought into awareness during therapy, and individuals can address these aspects of themselves in order to experience a more authentic existence. A therapist can also help a person explore ways to integrate the “good” and “bad”; aspects of internal objects so that the person becomes able to see others more realistically. Therapy can often help a person to experience less internal conflict and become able to relate to others more fully. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Evaluation of Psychoanalysis - Therapy is very time-consuming and is unlikely to provide answers quickly. - People must be prepared to invest a lot of time and money into therapy; they must be motivated. - They might discover some painful and unpleasant memories that had been repressed, which causes them more distress. - This type of therapy does not work for all people and all types of disorders. - The nature of psychoanalysis creates a power imbalance between therapist and client that could raise ethical issues. Evaluation of Freud’s Theory It is more of a novel approach to explaining mental disorders. There was limited treatment for mental disorders hence his approach was accepted by many people. His methods were unique and developed specifically for his own purpose. He needed to find out what was in a person’s unconscious and that the individual could not access the material, he needed to use special methods to uncover. The data gathered were in depth and therefore valid. There is lack of scientific data to support Freud’s work. His work required subjective interpretation. He got his ideas based on his own experience. His concepts are not measurable. Science requires measurable data so that it can be replicated. Freud’s concepts: the id, ego and super-ego are not measurable. He used case studies, so it is hard to show for reliability since a case study cannot be repeated to test for reliability. Case studies are unique, therefore generalizing the findings to other population is limited. Freud drew his conclusion from a small sample of case studies mainly middle- class Viennese women. The sample was biased in terms of gender. He studied a Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 few men and a brief on Little Hans. There was no range of different classes of people. Freud’s theory stops at adolescence and does not explain development in adulthood. Therefore, it is not a complete explanation of human development. Research methods in learning theories and development. Observations as a research method in Psychology. Observation is defined as being when watching is the main way of obtaining data and when there is no manipulation of the IV. Observation as a research method involves all the data being gathered by observing and does not involve the manipulation of the independent variable (IV). Observations can be structured but are mostly naturalistic. Note: One rule about observation is that they can be carried out without getting consent, debriefing or giving the right to withdraw as long as they are done in public setting when the person is expecting to be observed in general by others. If someone is not expecting to be watched, then the researcher must seek permission. Types of observations Structured observation - This is observation carried out in a structured setting. Behavior is often observed in controlled laboratory conditions. Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation). The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristics, or use of a scale to measure behavior intensity. The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics. Sometimes the behaviour of participants is observed through a two-way mirror or they are secretly filmed. Naturalistic observation - This observation takes place in the participants’ natural setting. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. For example, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of different tribes Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxford shire. Non-participant observation - The observer is not part of the situation and does not have direct contact with the people being observed. Participant observation - The observer is part of the observation. The researcher often has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. Overt observation - Participants know they are being observed and why they are being observed. Covert Observation- Participants are usually unaware they are being observed. The researcher will often pretend to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. Observations include tallying that produces quantitative data. In tallying, the observers write down when and how many times certain behaviors occurred. Qualitative data is collected by writing down quotes or telling the story of what is happening. In large scale observation, observers need training in to ensure that they understand the operational definitions of behavioral categories. Training and standardization of observers is important where more than one observer is making an assessment. In observations, there is a likelihood of a lot of information/data being gathered. As a result, observers use sampling to gather information. This is either through time or event sampling. Time sampling involves making observations at different time intervals. For example, after every 1 minute and recording what has been observed. This may not be representative as certain behaviors can be missed if they are only recorded at a certain time. Event sampling involves recording a certain behavior every time it happens. For example, ticking a box every time someone displays a particular behavior. A weakness of this approach is that if too many instances of a behavior happen at once, the researcher may not be able to record all instances. Conducting an observation After a researcher has obtained access to the setting and decisions made on what type of observation to use, the researcher then watches the situation to note down the observations on behaviors then tally them. Evaluation of observations as a research method. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Naturalistic and structured observation Structured observations have controls hence cause-effect conclusions are easy to draw because there are fewer factors that affect the observation. Hence, they are highly reliable as they are replicable. Naturalistic observations are not reliable because the behavior takes place in a natural setting which is hard to replicate. However, if the procedure of the whole observation is documented, another researcher may repeat it and find reliability. Naturalistic observations are valid because they take place in a natural setting and observations are of a naturally occurring behavior. Hence structured observations can lack validity. Overt and covert observation In overt observation, the researcher must seek informed consent from the participants and they have a right to withdraw. Observers can also ask for help to set up the study. Further, since the participants know they are being observed, it may cause them to change their behavior making the observation less valid. Covert observations are most likely to be valid because the participants are unaware, they are being observed, hence their behavior is usual. However, this type of observation is less ethical since the participants are not aware they are taking part in a study. The observer cannot also be helped to set up the observation. E.g. To find a suitable place for observation, because the participants are unaware, they are taking part in a study. Non participant and participant observation Participant observations are valid because there is no strange observer affecting behavior. The observer is part of the group. One setback for this kind of observation is that there is no time for the observer to make notes and do serious observations. It is also hard to sit back and watch. However, the observer in participant observation have shared understanding with the group, hence the data s/he collects, is well understood. Non-participant observation lacks validity because the presence of observer is likely to affect the behavior of the participants. The researcher on the other hand has enough time to do the tallying and time sampling. Animal Research Animals are commonly used in research. Damage to the brains of the animal may result to a change in behavior (Lesion studies). The brain damage caused can be permanent. This is done by surgically cutting or burning away a part of the brain. Drugs can also be Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 used to temporarily shut parts of the brains. Causing damage to the brain is the IV while the resulting changes in behavior is the DV. Strengths of Animal Research (+) - Large samples can be bred over a short period of time. For example, rats are mostly used in psychological research because of the time it takes to reproduce. The gestation period of rats is 22 days. Further, when investigating a characteristic across generations, the researcher does not have to wait for so long for the results. - Animals are naïve participants. The overall validity of the study will be higher as there will be a valid picture of how the brain damage caused change in behavior without change due to demand characteristics that are likely in humans. - Researchers have a higher degree of control over animals as compared to humans. For examples, animas can be caged in a way that humans cannot and can isolate variables from animals in ways that would be more difficult for human participants. - Pain and distress are allowed which cannot be the case with humans. Skinner gave electric shocks to animals in the Skinner box. However, it is important to ensure that the correct housing and treatment is given to the animal. - Animal research provides a lot of insight in important areas of medical research including drug treatment, transplants, surgical techniques and cloning. This research has enabled a lot of contribution to what we know about the brain and nervous system. - To some extent, we are able to generalize from animals to humans. This is because humans share common ancestry with other animals especially primates hence valid information on human processes. Weaknesses of Animal Research (-) - Animal experiments could be more expensive to the researcher as it requires a high level of care to work on animals. - Animal research is not credible and lacks ecological validity. Lab based animal research produces behavior that could be different from animals’ natural behavior. Further there are too many differences between animals and humans. - A researcher should avoid pain and discomfort for the animals unless findings have significant benefit for humans. However, benefits of research are not known until after a study have been done. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 - The moral obligation is that this is speciesism; human interests should not be elevated above those of other species. We have a moral obligation to protect other species. Ethical issues regarding the use of animals in laboratory experiments. The Animal (Scientific procedures) Act 1986 covers all animal research. This is in the view to any scientific procedure that may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to a protected animal. Psychologists conducting research must comply with the act and follow the Animal Welfare Act 2006 which focusses on more general duties of care towards animals. The ethics are as follows: No permission should be granted unless the researcher justifies the costs to the animals in relation to the unlikely benefits of the research. The researcher must be sure to minimize pain and distress caused to the animals during research by reducing the number of animals used, refining procedures to minimize suffering and replacing animals with non-sentient alternatives whenever possible (animals that show no signs of intelligence or self-awareness). To manage pain in animals during experiments, anesthetics must be used. All animal research must be licensed. For any new project, a new license is issued. The license should include the species and number of animals to be used. Researchers are required to have personal licenses which can only be given after training to ensure that only competent personnel conduct the research. The researcher must ensure they minimize any pain, suffering or distress that might arise during the experiments. Protected/endangered species should not be used in the experiment. Researchers must find suitable caging for the animals; the animals must be fed and proper care given to them. Any adverse effects to the animals must be recognized and assessed and an immediate action taken. Case studies A case study is an in-depth, detailed data about an individual. Within the case study, other research methods such as questionnaires, interviews, experiments and observations are used. Case studies provide information about one’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, family relationships and health etc. Case studies gather Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 qualitative data. Triangulation is often used which means pooling all data from the various research methods and looking for common trends and themes. Ethical guidelines must be adhered to when carrying out case studies. Confidentiality and privacy are very important because one unique person is studied and they might be identifiable. All data must remain confidential and all efforts made to safeguard the individual’s privacy. Strengths and weaknesses of case studies (+/-) - Case studies offer the only way to study a particular phenomenon. They also offer an opportunity to gather data that cannot be obtained by other means. - Data produced is valid because it comes directly from the participant and is gathered in the natural environment. Further the case studies gather in depth, rich and detailed hence making it valid. - Case studies are not replicable because the situations are unique. - The result findings cannot be generalized. The results come from one unique person or a small group. - Case studies are gathered mostly in the form of qualitative data often by one individual which makes it affected by subjectivity. Thematic Analysis An alternative to content analysis which converts qualitative data into quantitative data, is to use thematic analysis. Once data is transcribed (where necessary) data is reviewed repeatedly so that the researcher can identify trends in the meaning conveyed by language. The themes identified are re-analyzed so that they become more refined and relevant and given short hand codes. The researcher can then annotate (explain) the transcript with the codes that have been identified. The themes identified can be used to support or challenge existing theories, with specific examples of data or quotes being used as supporting evidence. Analyzing observational research using chi-squared statistical test The chi-squared test is chosen when: Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 There is a hypothesis that is predicting a difference or an association. The level of measurement is nominal, Ex. Where there are categories The participant design is independent measures group design, Ex. Boys and girls. The chi-squared test looks at the observed and actual figures. When the observed chi-squared ≥ critical chi square we accept the hypothesis When the observed chi-squared ≤ critical chi square we fail to reject the hypothesis Females Males Totals More serious 28 (A) 11 (B) 39 Less serious 14 (C) 34 (D) 48 Totals 42 45 87 (overall total) Observed frequency- O Expected frequency- E E= Total column × total row ÷ overall total A = 42 × 39 ÷ 87 = 18.83 B = 39 × 45 ÷ 87 = 20.17 C = 42 × 48 ÷ 87 = 23.17 D = 45 × 48 ÷ 87 = 24.83 Chi- squared distribution formula O E o–e (o – e) 2 (o – e) 2 e 28 18.83 9.17 84.09 4.47 11 20.17 -9.17 84.09 4.16 14 23.17 -9.17 84.09 3.63 34 24.83 9.17 84.09 3.39 15.65 Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 X2 = 15.65 Df = (2-1) (2-1) = 1 Df = 1 Cv =3.84 It is significant. Watson & Rayner (1920) Little Albert: Conditioned emotional Aims: To investigate whether an infant can be conditioned to fear an animal that appears simultaneously loud/fear-arousing sound To find out if such fear can be transferred to other animals or to inanimate objects To find out how long such fears would persist Variables + Design - Independent Variable (IV) Before conditioning and after conditioning Being presented with white rat compared to being presented with other white, fluffy animals /objects - Dependent Variable (DV) Number of fearful behaviors Albert shows when presented with stimuli Watson and Rayner used a repeated measures design, since Albert was studied before conditioning and after conditioning with albert experiences both conditions. Sample A baby boy named Albert, was 9 months old at the start of the study and 11 months when the conditioning began. Albert’s mother was a nurse at the hospital – Opportunity Sampling-and Albert was chosen because he seemed healthy and quite fearless (according to Watson he practically never cried). Alberts’s mother was paid a $1 incentive. Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Procedure: At 9 months old, Little Albert was exposed to animals and objects such as; a white rabbit, dog, monkey, rat, masks with hair and without. Albert showed no fear reaction to any the animals and objects presented to him. This showed that they were neutral stimulus Albert was then placed in the middle of a laboratory room with a white rat and with no fear he reached out to the rat. A while after when Albert would reach out to touch the rat the experimenter would bang an iron bar behind him. The loud noise caused albert to cry The loud noise = unconditioned stimuli (babies naturally fear loud noises) Crying = Unconditioned response At 11 months old, Albert was conditioned. He was shown the white rat three times, each time he saw the rat it was paired with the banging of the iron bar. Albert would start to whimper The procedure was repeated 5 times a week later and 2 times more 17 days later Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 Results - When rat was presented alone, Albert would become distressed and start to whimper and crawl away. Albert had paired seeing the rat with the banging of the iron bar. - This suggests that the Neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus and Albert’s crying the conditioned response. - Over next 10 days, Watson and Rayner tested Albert’s reaction to the rat and to other white furry animals and objects like rabbit, dog and Watson wearing a Santa mask. – Albert showed similar reactions; to the rabbit he cried, to the Santa mask and the dog he crawled away and cried when it approached him – This suggests Albert had generalized the response - Albert was then moved to a lecture theatre with four other people. His reaction to the rat and the rabbit were the same- suggesting that there was transferal of response to other settings - Over the next few weeks and months, Little Albert was observed and ten days after conditioning his fear of the rat was slightly weaker. This dying out of a learned response is called extinction. - The Little Albert Experiment demonstrated that classical conditioning could be used to create a phobia. A phobia is an irrational fear, that is out of proportion to the danger. In this experiment, a previously unafraid baby was conditioned to become afraid of a rat. - Watson and Rayner intended to use classical conditioning to remove the conditioned response from albert, but his mother moved away and took Albert with him so experiment ended. Conclusions: It demonstrates that it is artificially possible to induce emotional responses by classical conditioning and from this it suggests that phobias can be learned from the environment. The conditioning lasted a month and Watson proposed that the conditioned fear responses Albert was left with would last a lifetime Seems that a conditioned emotional response can occur in a human after only a few pairings with the stimuli Evaluation: Generalizability Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 - This study has low generalizability because they used a single participant design of a 9 month old boy from America. Therefore we cannot generalize the findings to other ages, gender or race. Reliability - This study is highly reliable. This is because it followed a standardized procedure such as hitting the metal bar every time Albert reached for the rat thus making it easily replicable. - On the other hand the reliability of the study is low because the study had some ethical issues such as causing harm to Albert therefore the study would not be replicable today due to guidelines. Applications - They found that phobias can be learnt through classical conditioning with Little Albert associating fear from a loud noise with a rat. Therefore leading to the development of treatments for phobias such as systematic desensitization that use the principles of classical conditioning by associating the object of fear with something good. Validity - The study has low ecological validity since it was conducted in an artificial lab setting. The unnatural situation of hitting a metal bar when presented with a rat may not reflect learning in real life. - The validity of the study is low because there were no control groups used meaning Little Albert’s fear could’ve been down to a repeated exposure to the animal therefore we cannot establish cause and effect Ethical issues - This study is unethical. Little Albert’s mother withdrew him from the study before Watson and Rayner could remove the conditioning of his fear therefore, he sustained long term psychological harm Bastian et al. (2011) Cyber-dehumanization: Violent video gameplay diminishes out humanity. Contemporary study 2 Aim: Downloaded by demmy akinruntan ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47330644 To establish to w