Psychology 101 Midterms PDF

Psychology 101 Midterms Reviewer ❖ Autistic brain - uses only the red CHAPTER 1: DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY inferior temporal gyrus to process faces and inanimate objects. Psych...

Psychology 101 Midterms Reviewer ❖ Autistic brain - uses only the red CHAPTER 1: DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY inferior temporal gyrus to process faces and inanimate objects. Psychology is a systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes COGNITIVE APPROACH 4 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY ❖ Describe - Describe different ways that organisms behave ❖ Explain - Explain the causes of behavior ❖ Predict - Predict how organisms will behave in certain situations ❖ Control - Control an organisms behavior MODERN APPROACHES ❖ Examines how we process, store, and use information and how this BIOLOGICAL APPROACH information influences what we perceive or feel. ❖ Cognitive Neuroscience - involves taking pictures and identifying the structures and functions of the living brain during performance of a wide variety of mental or cognitive processes, such as thinking, planning, and recognizing objects ❖ Focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system interact with our environments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions, and coping techniques. ❖ Normal brain - uses blue fusiform gyrus to process faces of people and red inferior temporal gyrus to process inanimate objects, such as a chair DCMS 1 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH Sigmund Freud Stresses the influence of unconscious ❖ Studies how organisms learn new fears, desires, and motivations on behaviors or modify existing ones, thoughts, behaviors, and the depending on whether events in their development of personality traits and environments reward or punish these psychological problems later in life behaviors. ❖ B.F. Skinner made the behavioral HUMANISTIC APPROACH approach a major force in psychology. He stressed the study of observable behaviors, the importance of environmental reinforcers (rewards and punishment), and the exclusion of mental processes. ❖ Albert Bandura disagrees with strict behaviorism and has formulated a theory that includes mental or Abraham Maslow cognitive processes in addition to Emphasizes that each individual has observable behaviors. great freedom in directing his or her Bandura’s social cognitive future, a large capacity for achieving approach states that our personal growth, a considerable behaviors are influenced not only amount of intrinsic worth, and enormous by environmental events and potential for self fulfillment. reinforcers but also by observation, imitation, and thought processes. 2 CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH STRUCTURALISM: ELEMENTS OF THE MIND ❖ Studies the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on psychological and social functioning ❖ The study of the most basic elements, primarily sensation and perceptions, that HISTORICAL APPROACHES make up our conscious mental experiences. PSYCHOLOGY’S FIRST LABORATORY ❖ Introspection method - a method of ❖ Modern day psychology was born in exploring conscious mental processes December 1897 at Germany’s University by asking subjects to look inward and of Leipzig, when Wilhelm Wundt report their sensations and perceptions. wanted to create an experimental apparatus to measure the “atoms of FUNCTIONALISM: FUNCTIONS OF THE the mind” MIND ❖ Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. ❖ In 1883, Wundt’s American student “G. Stanley Hall” went on to establish the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory, at John Hopkins University. ❖ The study of the functions rather than the structure of consciousness. Interested in how our minds adapt to our changing environment. ❖ Consciousness serves as a function , as it enables us to consider our past, adjust our present, & plan our future. ❖ Functionalist: An early school of thought promoted by James & influenced by Darwin; explored how 3  mental & behavioral processes function might be— doctor, lawyer, artist…” (Watson, & how they enable the organism to 1924). adapt, survive, & flourish. ❖ William James authored the ❖ This definition endured until John B. “Principles of Psychology (1890)”. Watson & B. F. Skinner redefined psychology as “the scientific study of GESTALT APPROACH: SENSATION VS observable behavior”. PERCEPTIONS CULTURAL DIVERSITY: EARLY DISCRIMINATION WOMEN IN PSYCHOLOGY ❖ Mary Whiton Calkins was a faculty member and established a laboratory in psychology at Wellesley College in 1891, she petitioned and was allowed to take seminars at Harvard. There she completed her Ph.D. however, Harvard ❖ Emphasized that perception is more administration declined to grant it than the sum of its parts and studied because she was a woman (Furumoto, how sensations are assembled into 1989). meaningful perceptual experiences. ❖ It was not until Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman “The whole is greater than the sum of its awarded a Ph.D. in Psychology in 1908. parts” THEGOATEATMEAT MINORITIES IN PSYCHOLOGY ❖ In psychology’s early days, only a few BEHAVIORISM: OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR northern White universities accepted Black students, while all southern White universities denied admission to Black students. ❖ The first African American woman to receive Ph.D. in psychology in 1934 was Ruth Howard, who graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1934. ❖ She had a successful career as a clinical psychologist and school consultant. “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, ❖ Between 1920 and 1966, only 8 Ph.D.s and my own special world to bring them up in in psychology were awarded to Black and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random students, compared to 3,767 doctorates and train him to become any type of specialist I to Whites (R.V. Guthrie, 1976). 4  CHAPTER 2: NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASIS 1. Providing scaffolding to guide the OF PSYCHOLOGY growth of developing neurons; 2. Wrapping around neurons to form OVERVIEW: HUMAN BRAIN insulation to prevent interference from other electrical signals; and GENES 3. Releasing chemicals that ❖ Genes are chains of chemicals arranged influence a neuron’s growth and like rungs on a twisting ladder. function. ❖ About 20,000 to 25,000 genes that ❖ Neurons - About 100 billion contain chemical instructions. A neuron is a brain cell with two ❖ These chemical instructions in the specialized extensions. One genes program the development of extension is for receiving millions of individual parts into a electrical signals, and the complex body and brain. second, longer extension is for transmitting electrical signals. BRAIN’S EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT NEURONS: STRUCTURE & FUNCTION ❖ Six-Week-Old-Brain 3 major divisions of the mature brain ❖ Mature Brain 3 major divisions of the mature human brain Weigh almost 3 pounds Contain 1 trillion cells DENDRITE are branchlike extensions that arise from the cell body; they receive signals WHAT’S IN YOUR BRAIN? from other neurons, muscles, or sense A human brain weighs about 1,350 organs and pass these signals to the grams. cell body. It has a pinkish-white color. Has the consistency of firm JELL-O. SOMA (CELL BODY) Fueled by sugar (glucose). is a relatively large, egg-shaped Has about 1 trillion cells. structure that provides fuel, manufactures chemicals, and TWO GROUPS OF CELLS IN THE BRAIN maintains the entire neurons in working order. ❖ Glial Cells - The most numerous brain cells, about 900 billion AXON Glial Cells (astrocytes) have three is a single threadlike structure that functions: extends from, and carries signals away 5  from, the cell body to neighboring CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) neurons, organs, or muscles. ❖ The Central Nervous System is made up of neurons located in the brain and MYELIN SHEATH spinal cord. looks like separate tubelike segments composed of fatty materials that wrap SENDING INFORMATION around and insulate an axon. It prevents interference from electrical 1. RESTING POTENTIAL signals generated in adjacent axons. ❖ State: The neuron is at rest, maintaining a stable resting membrane potential of PRESYNAPTIC approximately -70 millivolts (mV) inside TERMINALS/END-BULB/TERMINAL BULBS the cell compared to the outside. look like tiny bubbles that are located ❖ Ion Distribution: The inside of the at the extreme ends of the axon’s neuron is negatively charged due to the branches. Each end bulb is like a presence of large negatively charged miniature container that stores proteins and a higher concentration of chemicals called neurotransmitters, potassium ions (K+) compared to which are used to communicate with the outside. Sodium ions (Na+) are more neighboring cells. concentrated outside the neuron. SYNAPSE 2. THRESHOLD is an infinitely small space (20-30 ❖ If the depolarization is strong enough to billionths of a meter) that exists raise the membrane potential to a between an end bulb and its adjacent specific level, typically around -55 mV, body organ (heart), muscles (head), or the threshold is reached. This level is cell body. crucial because it triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. 3. DEPOLARIZATION ❖ Activation: If the stimulus reaches a NEURONS VS NERVES threshold level (typically around -55 mV), voltage-gated sodium channels in PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) the neuron's membrane open. ❖ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is ❖ Influx of Sodium Ions: Sodium ions made up of nerves which are located rush into the neuron, moving down their throughout the body except in the brain concentration gradient and causing a and spinal cord. rapid depolarization of the membrane ❖ Nerves are stringlike bundles of axons potential. and dendrites that come from the spinal ❖ Action Potential: The membrane cord and are held together by potential rapidly shifts from negative to connective tissue. positive, reaching approximately +30 mV. 6  4. REPOLARIZATION ❖ Closure of Sodium Channels: Shortly after opening, sodium channels become inactive and closed. ❖ Opening of Potassium Channels: Voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to flow out of the neuron. ❖ Restoration of Membrane Potential: Potassium efflux causes the membrane potential to return to its negative resting state. 5. HYPERPOLARIZATION ❖ Overshoot: In some cases, potassium channels continue to remain open briefly, causing an undershoot of the resting membrane potential (hyperpolarization) before returning to baseline. 6. REFRACTORY PERIOD ❖ In neural processing, a brief resting pause occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. NEUROTRANSMITTERS Neurotransmitters are about a dozen different chemicals that are made by TRANSMITTERS neurons and then used for communication between neurons A transmitter is a chemical messenger that during the performance of mental or carries information between nerves and body physical activities. organs, such as muscles and heart. 7  ENDORPHINS brain’s own painkiller, very similar to morphine. They are called neurotransmitter endorphins, which are secreted to decrease pain during great bodily stress, such as an accident. AGONIST Agonist molecules increase a neurotransmitter’s action. Some agonists may increase the production or release of neurotransmitters, or block reuptake in the synapse. ALCOHOL (ETHYL ALCOHOL) Some opiate drugs are agonists and Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) is a produce temporary “high” by amplifying psychoactive drug that is classified as a normal sensations of arousal or depressant, which means that it pleasure. depresses the activity of the central Agonist molecule excites nervous system. Alcohol molecules so closely resemble ANTAGONIST those of the GABA Antagonist molecules decrease a (gamma-aminobutyric acid) neurotransmitter’s action by blocking neurotransmitter that alcohol can the production or release. function like GABA keys and open Antagonist molecule inhibits GABA receptors. Examples of this is Botulinum Toxin (BOTOX) treatment ANANDAMIDE 8  Similar in chemical makeup to THC spinal cord to produce responses in (tetrahydrocannabinol), the active various muscles and organs throughout ingredient in marijuana. the body. This may help people regulate emotions, which would help them better CHAPTER 3: NERVOUS SYSTEM cope with anxiety and stress. MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS NITRIC OXIDE SYSTEM Regulates emotions, aggressive and Central Nervous System (CNS) impulsive behaviors. ○ Is made up of the brain and the spinal cord OREXIN (HYPOCRETIN) ○ Responsible for many cognitive involved in the brain’s pleasure and functions–such as thinking reward system; also involved in speaking, and, reading, as well regulating sleep and wakefulness. as moving, feeling, seeing, and Low levels of this neurotransmitter have hearing. been linked to a serious sleep disorder Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) called narcolepsy. ○ Includes all the nerves that extend from the spinal cord and REFLEX RESPONSE carry messages to and from the various muscles, glands, sense REFLEX organs located throughout the A reflex is an unlearned, involuntary body. reaction to some stimulus. The neural connections or network underlying a PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM reflex is prewired by genetic Autonomic Nervous System instructions. ○ Regulates heart rate, breathing, Knee-jerk is controlled by the spinal blood pressure, digestion, cord. hormone secretion, and other functions. 3 TYPES OF NEURONS ○ Sympathetic Division is triggered by threatening or challenging physical and physiological stimuli. Increases physiological arousal and 1. Afferent (AFF-er-ent), or sensory, prepares the body for action. neurons carry information from the ○ Parasympathetic Division senses to the spinal cord. returns the body to a calmer, 2. Interneuron is a relatively short neuron relaxed state and is involved in whose primary task is making digestion. connections between other neurons. Somatic Nervous System 3. Efferent (EFF-er-ent), or motor, ○ Consists of a network of nerves neurons carry information away from the that connect either to sensory 9  receptors or to muscles that you biological functions that keep us alive. can move voluntarily, such as Some of the important structures within muscles in your limbs, back, the hindbrain are the medulla, pons, and neck, and chest. cerebellum. Pons - Located just above the MAJOR PARTS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN medulla and toward the front; connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain. It is also involved in the control of facial expression. Also makes chemicals involved in sleep. Medulla - includes a group of cells that control vital reflexes such as respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure. It is also known as the medulla oblongata and is located above the spinal cord. FOREBRAIN Cerebellum - is involved in ❖ The largest part of the brain, has the coordinating movements but not right and left sides that are called in initiating voluntary hemisphere. Responsible for learning movement. Also involved in and memory, speaking and language, performing timed motor emotional responses, experiencing responses, such as those needed sensations, initiating voluntary in playing games or sports, and in movements, planning and making automatic or reflexive learning, decisions. such as a blinking eye to a signal, which is called classical MIDBRAIN conditioning. ❖ Has a reward or pleasure center, which is stimulated by food, sex, money, MAJOR PARTS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN music, attractive faces, and some drugs(cocaine); has areas for visual and auditory reflexes, such as automatically turning your head towards a noise; and contains a reticular formation, which arouses the forebrain so that it is ready to process information form the senses. HINDBRAIN ❖ Consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord. The hindbrain is our life support system; it controls the basic 10 FRONTAL LOBE: FUNCTIONS ❖ The primary auditory cortex, which is ❖ The largest of the brain’s lobes located on the top edge of each ❖ Involved in performing: temporal lobe, receives electrical signals voluntary motor movements from receptors in the ears and transform interpreting and performing these signals into meaningless sound emotional behaviors sensation, such as vowels and behaving normally in social consonants. situations ❖ For these meaningless sound maintaining a healthy personality, sensations to become recognizable paying attention to things in the words, they must be sent to another environment area in the temporal lobe, called the Making decisions auditory association area. Executing plans. ❖ The motor cortex is a narrow strip of Broca’s Area—Frontal Lobe cortex that is located on the edge of the Broca’s area, which is usually located in frontal lobe and extends down its side. the left frontal lobe, is necessary for ❖ Involved in initiation of all voluntary combining sounds into words and movements. arranging words into meaningful ❖ The right context controls muscles on sentences. the left side of the body, and vice versa. Broca’s Aphasia is a person who cannot speak in fluent sentences but PARIETAL LOBE: FUNCTIONS can understand written and spoken ❖ The somatosensory cortex is a narrow words. strip of cortex that is located on the front edge of the parietal lobe and extends Wernicke’s Area—Temporal Lobe down its side. Wernicke’s area, which is usually ❖ Processes sensory information about: located in the left temporal lobe, is Touch necessary for speaking in coherent Location of limbs sentences and for understanding Pain speech Temperature Wernicke’s Aphasia is Difficulty in ❖ The right somatosensory cortex understanding spoken or written receives information from the left side of words and in putting words into the body, and vice versa. meaningful sentences TEMPORAL LOBE: FUNCTIONS OCCIPITAL LOBE: FUNCTIONS ❖ Located directly below the parietal ❖ Located at the very back of the brain. lobe. ❖ Involved in processing visual ❖ Involved in: information, which includes seeing Hearing colors and perceiving and recognizing Speaking coherently objects, animals, and people. Understanding verbal and written ❖ The primary visual cortex which is materials. located at the very back of the occipital 11  lobe, receives electrical signals from LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN receptors in the eyes and transforms these signals into meaningful basic The Limbic System refers to a group of visual sensations, such as lights, lines, about half a dozen interconnected shadow, colors, and textures. structures that make up the core of the ❖ The visual association area which is forebrain. located at the primary visual cortex, Involved with regulating many transforms basic sensations, such as motivational behavior such as obtaining lights, lines, colors, and textures, into food, drink, and sex; complete, meaningful visual Organizing emotional behaviors such as perceptions, such as persons, objects, fear, anger, and aggression; and with or animals. strong memories. ❖ In visual agnosia, the individual fails to recognize some objects, person, color, PARTS OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM yet has the ability to see and even describe pieces or parts of some visual HYPOTHALAMUS stimuli. regulates many motivational behaviors, including eating, drinking, and sexual responses; emotional behaviors, such as arousing the body when fighting or fleeing; and the secretion of hormones, such as occurs at puberty. controls the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. ❖ The neglect syndrome refers to the failure of a patient to see objects or parts of the body on the side opposite the brain damage. Patients may dress only one side of their body and deny that opposite body parts and theirs (that’s not my leg). THALAMUS is involved in receiving sensory information, doing some initial processing, and then relaying the sensory information to areas of the cortex, including somatosensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, and primary visual cortex. 12  ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine system is made up of numerous glands that are located throughout the body. These glands secrete various chemicals, called hormones, which affect organs, muscles, and other glands in the body. CONTROL CENTER In many ways, the hypothalamus, which is AMYGDALA located in the lower middle part of the brain, it plays a major role in evaluating the controls much of the endocrine system by emotional significance of stimuli and regulating the pituitary gland, which is located facial expressions, especially those directly below and outside the brain. The involving fear, distress, or threat. hypothalamus is often called the control center of the endocrine system. OTHER GLANDS PITUITARY GLAND ❖ The pituitary gland, a key component of the endocrine system, hangs directly below the hypo-thalamus, to which it is connected by a narrow stalk. The pituitary gland is divided into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections. HIPPOCAMPUS is involved in saving many kinds of POSTERIOR PITUITARY fleeting memories by putting them into The rear portion of the pituitary permanent storage in various parts of regulates water and salt balance. the brain. Dysfunction: Lack of hormones causes a less common form of diabetes ANTERIOR PITUITARY The front part of the pituitary regulates growth through secretion of growth hormone and produces hormones that control the adrenal cortex, pancreas, thyroid, and gonads. Dysfunction: Too little growth hormone produces dwarfism; too much causes gigan-tism. Other problems in the 13  pituitary cause problems in the glands it GONADS regulates. In females, the ovaries produce hormones that regulate sexual PANCREAS development, ovulation, and growth of This organ regulates the level of sugar sex organs. In males, the testes in the bloodstream by secreting insulin. produce hormones that regulate sexual Dysfunction: Lack of insulin results in development, production of sperm, and the more common form of diabetes, growth of sex organs. while much causes hypoglycemia (low Dysfunction: Lack of sex hormones blood) during puberty results in lack of secondary sexual characteristics (facial THYROID and body hair, muscles in males, This gland, which is located in the neck, breasts in females). regulates metabolism through the secretion of hormones. CHAPTER 4: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Dysfunction: Hormone deficiency during development leads to stunted IVAN PAVLOV growth and mental retardation. Under is a kind of learning in which a neutral Secretion during adulthood leads to stimulus acquires the ability to produce reduction in motivation. Oversecretion a response that was originally produced results in high metabolism, weight loss, by a different stimulus. and nervousness. Pavlov found that when food is placed in a dog's mouth, the food triggers the ADRENAL GLANDS reflex of salivation. The adrenal cortex (outside part) After he placed food in a dog's mouth on secretes hormones that regulate sugar a number of occasions, the dog began and salt balances and help the body to salivate merely at the sight of the resist stress; they are also responsible food. for growth of pubic hair, a secondary He reasoned that the dog's salivation at sexual characteristic. the sight of food was also a reflex, but The adrenal medulla (inside part) one that the dog had somehow learned. secretes two hormones that arouse the body to deal with stress and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Dysfunction: With a lack of cortical hormones, the body's responses are unable to cope with stress. 14  PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS STEP 1. SELECTING STIMULUS AND Some seconds(but less than a minute) RESPONSE after the tone begins, you present the unconditioned stimulus. A piece of food, NEUTRAL STIMULUS which elicits salivation. This trial You need to choose a neutral stimulus. procedure is the one most frequently A neutral stimulus is some stimulus used in classical conditioning. that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE does not produce the reflex being The unconditioned stimulus, food, elicits tested. the unconditioned response, salivation, in Sam. Food and salivation are said to UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS be unconditioned because the effect on You need to choose an unconditioned Sam is inborn and not dependent on stimulus, or UCS. some prior training or learning. An unconditioned stimulus, or UCS, is some stimulus that triggers or elicits a STEP 3. TESTING FOR CONDITIONING physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink. CONDITIONED STIMULUS If Sam salivates when you present the UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE tone alone, it means that the tone has Finally, you need to select and measure become a conditioned stimulus. an unconditioned response, or UCR. A conditioned stimulus or CS, is a The unconditioned response, or UCR, formerly neutral stimulus that has is an unlearned, innate, involuntary acquired the ability to elicit a response physiological reflex that is elicited by the that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. unconditioned stimulus In this example, the tone, an originally STEP 2. ESTABLISHING CLASSICAL neutral stimulus, became the CS. CONDITIONING CONDITIONED RESPONSE NEUTRAL STIMULUS When Sam salivates to the tone alone, In a typical trial, you will pair the neutral this response is called the conditioned stimulus, the tone, with the response. unconditioned stimulus, the food. The conditioned response, or CR, generally , you will first present the which is elicited by the conditioned neutral stimulus(tone) and then, a short stimulus, is similar to, but not identical in time later, present the unconditioned size or amount to, the unconditioned stimulus(food). response. One thing to remember is that the conditioned response is usually similar in appearance but smaller in amount or 15  magnitude than the unconditioned Discrimination also has an adaptive response. This means that Sam's value because there are times when it is conditioned response will involve less important to respond differently to salivation to the tone (conditioned related stimuli. For example, you would stimulus) than to the food respond differently to the auditory (unconditioned stimulus). stimulus of a police siren than to the auditory stimulus of a baby’s cries. GENERALIZATION Not reacting to a new odor is discrimination. Generalization is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original EXTINCTION conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned Extinction refers to a procedure in response. Usually, the more similar the which a conditioned stimulus is new stimulus is to the original repeatedly presented without the conditioned stimulus, the larger the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result, conditioned response. the conditioned stimulus tends to no Pavlov suggested that generalization longer elicit the conditioned response. had an adaptive value because it The procedure for extinguishing a allowed us to make an appropriate conditioned response is used in response to stimuli that are similar to the therapeutic settings to reduce fears or original one. For example, although you phobias. For example, clients who had a may never see your friend’s smiling face conditioned fear of needles and in exactly the same situation, receiving injections were repeatedly generalization ensures that the smiling shown needles and given injections by face will usually elicit positive feelings. qualified nurses. After exposure to the Reacting to similar odors is conditioned stimuli during a 3-hour generalization. period, 81% of the clients reported a significant reduction in fear of needles DISCRIMINATION and receiving injections (Ost et al., 1992). This kind of exposure therapy is Discrimination occurs during classical a practical application of Pavlov’s work conditioning when an organism learns to and will be discussed more fully in make a particular response to some Module 22. stimuli but not to others. Not reacting to a previously powerful For example, Carla had learned that a stimulus is extinction. particular aftershave’s smell predicted the likelihood of a painful dental procedure. In contrast, the smell of her nail polish, which was very different from that of the aftershave, predicted not painful dental procedures but nice-looking fingernails. 16  SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others. Spontaneous recovery is the tendency for the conditioned response to CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSE reappear after being extinguished even ❖ A conditioned emotional response though there have been no further refers to feeling some positive or conditioning trials. negative emotion, such as happiness, Spontaneous recovery of the fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a conditioned response will not persist for stimulus that initially accompanied a long and will be of lesser magnitude pleasant or painful event. than the original conditioned response. If the conditioned stimulus (smell of THEORIES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING aftershave) is not presented again with the unconditioned stimulus (painful CONTIGUITY THEORY dental procedure), the spontaneously The contiguity theory says that recovered conditioned response will classical conditioning occurs because again undergo extinction and cease to two stimuli (neutral stimulus and occur. Thus, once Carla had been unconditioned stimulus) are paired close classically conditioned, she would have together in time (are contiguous). As a experienced one or more of these four result of this contiguous pairing, the phenomena. neutral stimulus becomes the Having a reaction come back is conditioned stimulus, which elicits the spontaneous recovery. conditioned response. TASTE AVERSION LEARNING COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Cognitive perspective (Robert Taste-aversion learning refers to Rescorla) says that an organism learns associating a particular sensory cue a predictable relationship between two (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with stimuli such that the occurrence of one getting sick and thereafter avoiding that stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the particular sensory cue in the future. occurrence of another (unconditioned ○ One-trial learning. stimulus). In other words, classical Taste-aversion learning did occur conditioning occurs because the in one trial and, surprisingly, did organism learns what to expect. occur even though there was an hour or more delay between the neutral stimulus (smell or taste) and the unconditioned response (sickness or vomiting). ○ Preparedness refers to the phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations 17  SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION 3 – In Waiting Room 2 – Entering Clinic Systematic desensitization is a 1 – Driving to Clinic procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines STEP 3: IMAGINING AND RELAXING or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking ➔ combining relaxation with items in the stimuli and then immediately uses deep anxiety hierarchy. relaxation to overcome the anxiety. Systematic desensitization is a form of counterconditioning because it replaces, or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation. Essentially, systematic desensitization is a procedure to “uncondition,” or overcome, fearful stimuli by pairing anxiety-provoking thoughts or images with feelings of relaxation. Systematic desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe in the early 1950s and has become one of the most frequently used nonmedical therapies for relief of anxiety and fears in both children and adults (M.A. Williams & Gross, 1994). Just as anticipatory nausea is based on Pavlov’s classical conditioning, so too is systematic desensitization (Thorpe & Sigman, 2008). SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION PROCEDURE: THREE STEPS STEP 1: LEARNING TO RELAX ➔ Body relaxation ➔ 15 to 30 minutes per day STEP 2: MAKE AN ANXIETY HIERARCHY ➔ make a list of items that elicit anxiety. ◆ Identify Stress Hierarchy 8 - Vomiting 7 – Feeling Nausea 6 – Receiving Injection 5 – In treatment Room 4 – Smelling Chemicals 18