Factors Affecting Runway Design PDF

OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Factors Affecting Runway • There are five factors affecting the determination of the siting, orientation and number of runways. Factors Affecting Weather (including wind) Siting Orientation Number of runways Topography Siting Orientation Type and amount of ai...

OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Factors Affecting Runway • There are five factors affecting the determination of the siting, orientation and number of runways. Factors Affecting Weather (including wind) Siting Orientation Number of runways Topography Siting Orientation Type and amount of air traffic to be served Number of runways Noise Siting Orientation Aircraft performance Number of runways OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runways Non-Instrument Runway Non-Precision Approach Runway Precision Approach Runway Intended solely for aircraft operation using visual approach procedure Having an instrument approach procedure using air navigation facility with only lateral guidance Having an instrument approach procedure using a precision instrument landing system (ILS) or precision approach radar (PAR) which provides both lateral and vertical guidance to the runway OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Markings on Runways Runway Marking Visual Runway Non-Precision Approach Runway Precision Approach Runway Designation X X X Centerline X X X Threshold X1 X X Aiming Point X2 X X Side Stripes X Touchdown Zone Markings X X1 On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports X2 On runways 1200m or longer, used by jet aircraft Threshold Runway Designation Aiming Point Touchdown Zone Markings Runway Centerline OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations • FAA Capacity Approximation Charts can be used to determine the most suitable runway configuration for an airport • The information required is the annual airport capacity as well as the fleet mix (% of large aircraft and % of heavy aircraft) Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Single Runway  Lesser impact on environment (reduced apron area, reduced aircraft movements per hour)  Airport capacity restricted 36 – 55 by single runway traffic movements per movements capability hour Kona International Airport  High runway utilisation  Difficult to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Crosswind take off and landing can present problems Operational Runway Capacity OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Operational Runway Capacity Open “V” to “L” Runways  Increased runway movements per hour leads to increased airport ultimate capacity  Larger impact on environment compared to single runway 85 – 90 movements per hour  Can overcome seasonal prevailing crosswind problems  One runway will always be more compromised to prevailing wind direction  Easier to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Aircraft crash at apex of “V” to “L” can render both runways inoperative  Both runways can be used simultaneously (subject to ATC control limitations)  Not a recommended choice of IATA Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport  Occupies larger apron area OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Operational Runway Capacity Intersecting Runways  Can overcome seasonal prevailing crosswind problems  Both runways cannot be used simultaneously 70 – 75 movements per hour Portland International Airport  Easier to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Larger impact on environment compared to single and parallel runways  Occupies larger apron area  One runway will always be more compromised to prevailing wind direction  Aircraft crash at intersect point can render both runways inoperative  Not a recommended choice of IATA OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Operational Runway Capacity Staggered Runways  Runway utilisation can be high if runways are independent  Crosswind takeoff and landing can present problems 60 - 70 movements per hour Changi International Airport  Easier to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Promotes safer operations (dedicated take off and landing) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Operational Runway Capacity Dual Parallel Runways  Runway utilisation can be high if runways are independent  Crosswind takeoff and landing can present problems 84 – 105 movements per hour Orlando International Airport  Easier to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Promotes safer operations (dedicated take off and landing) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Runway Configurations Runway Configuration Advantages Disadvantages Operational Runway Capacity Multiple Parallel Runways  Runway utilisation can be high if runways are independent  Crosswind takeoff and landing can present problems 120 – 168 movements per hour Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport  Easier to manage runway emergencies and maintenance  Promotes safer operations (dedicated take off and landing) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Runway Orientation • Determination of runway orientation is a critical task in the planning and design of an airport. • The orientation of a runway depends upon the direction of wind and to some extent the area available for development. • Runways are always oriented in the direction of prevailing wind to utilise to the maximum the force of wind at the time of take-off and landing of an aircraft. • According to FAA standards, runways should be oriented so that aircraft can take-off and/or land at least 95% of the time without exceeding the allowable crosswinds. OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Runway Orientation – Data Required Topography map (map of area and contours) • To examine the flatness of the area and the possible changes in the longitudinal profiles so as to keep them within permissible limits Wind data (direction and intensity of wind in the vicinity of the airport) • To develop the wind rose diagram so that the orientation of the runway can be determined OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Orientation to Minimise Impact of Crosswinds • Directional pairing from the frequency data is required before the orientation of the runway can be determined. Direction Percentage for Tally N NE E SE S SW W NW Total 22.3% 14.4% 5.2% 2.6% 8.8% 10.8% 8.9% 27.2% 100% Sector N S Percentage Pairing 22.3% 31.1% (N-S) 8.8% NE 14.4% SW 10.8% E 5.2% W 8.9% SE 2.6% NW 27.2% 25.2% (NE-SW) 14.1% (E-W) 29.8% (SE-NW) • After pairing, the largest Pairing percentage will be the orientation of the runway in order to minimise the impact of crosswinds. • In this case, the orientation will be N-S. OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Runway Orientation – Crosswind • It should be assumed that landing or take-off of aeroplanes is, in normal circumstances, precluded when the crosswind component exceeds: o 37 km/h (20 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1500 m or over, except that when poor runway braking action owing to an insufficient longitudinal coefficient of friction is experienced with some frequency, a crosswind component not exceeding 24 km/h (13 kt) should be assumed; o 24 km/h (13 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1200 m or up to but not including 1500 m; and, o 19 km/h (10 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is less than 1200 m. Source: CAAS, 2021 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE FAA Capacity Approximation Chart The information required before deciding on the suitable runway configuration using the FAA Approximation Chart are shown below: i) Annual aircraft movements ii) % of large aircraft, C iii) % of heavy aircraft, D Mix index = C+3D C is the % of large aircraft and D is the % of heavy aircraft OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Factors to Consider in Taxiway Design i. Wide enough for the largest aircraft that the airport handles to pass through. ii. Able to withstand the weight of the aircraft. iii. Taxiway should not cut across any active runway. iv. Minimise the number of bends and junctions. Use straight sections as much as possible. v. Routes should provide shortest distance between parking areas and runways. vi. Allow ground traffic to pass through smoothly without congestion at any point. vii. Arriving aircraft should not interfere with departing aircraft taxiing to take-off position. viii. Located where landing aircraft can leave the runway as fast as possible to clear the runway for the next landing or take-off. ix. Allow for aircraft to bypass each other during taxiing. OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Taxiway Design From an Airport Operator’s Perspective: • Shorter taxi routes will reduce cost of maintenance. • Crossings of runways and other taxiways should be avoided to have higher safety level and reduce the potential for significant taxiing delays. • There must be sufficient land space for future taxiway expansion. From an Airline’s Perspective: • Taxi routes should connect the various aerodrome elements by the shortest distance in order to minimise taxiing time and fuel cost. • Taxi routes should be as simple as possible to prevent pilot confusion. OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Stages in Taxiway System Development To minimise construction costs, an aerodrome’s taxiway system should only be as complex as needed to support the near-term capacity needs of the runway. (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Stages in Taxiway System Development (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Bypasses In general, taxiway features that allow an aircraft to bypass a preceding aircraft can be divided into three types: • Holding Bays • A defined area where aircraft can be held or bypassed. • Taxiway Bypass • A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel taxiway. • Dual Runway Entrances • A duplication of the taxiway entrance to the runway. Main functions of bypasses • It provides flexibility to alter the departure sequence • bypass an aircraft which is not ready for departure – due to technical malfunction or not prepared for departure OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Bypasses Holding bays • If a holding bay is used, aircraft can, on the basis of their priority, take-off in the order as cleared byATC. • The availability of the holding bay allows aircraft to leave and independently re-enter the departure stream. • Some examples of holding bay configurations: (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Bypasses Dual taxiways • Taxiway bypass can only achieve relative departure priority by separating the departure stream into two parts. • Taxiway bypass can be constructed at a relatively low cost, but provide only a small amount of flexibility to alter the departure sequence. • Some examples of taxiway bypasses are shown below: (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Bypasses Dual Runway Entrances • Dual runway entrance reduces the take-off run available for aircraft using the entrance not located at the extremity of the runway. • A dual runway entrance also makes it possible to bypass an aircraft delayed on another entrance taxiway or even at the extremity of the runway. • The use of dual entrances in combination with dual taxiways will give a high degree of flexibility compared with that obtained with a well-designed holding bay. • Some examples of dual runway entrances: (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Rapid Exit Taxiway (RET) • “A RET is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than those achieved on other exit taxiways, thereby minimising runway occupancy time.” • The main purpose of RET is to minimise aircraft runway occupancy time and thus increase aerodrome capacity. RET RET • RET is designed to exit the runway only. • • RET does not allow the pilot to see if the runway is clear of conflicting or other traffic in both directions. Therefore it does not allow aircraft to enter to take-off. • Intersection angle of a RET with the runway should not be greater than 45° nor less than 25°. Preferably should be 30°. (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Types of Apron Types of Apron Description Passenger Terminal Apron An area designed for aircraft maneuvering and parking that is adjacent or readily accessible to passenger terminal facilities. The area is also used for aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as loading and unloading of cargo, mail and baggage. Cargo Terminal Apron An area adjacent to a cargo terminal building for the parking of aircraft that carry only freight and mail. Remote Parking Apron A separate parking apron where aircraft can park for extended periods. This apron can be used during crew layovers or for light periodic servicing and maintenance of temporarily grounded aircraft. Service Apron An uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hangar on which aircraft maintenance can be performed. Hangar Apron An area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage hangar. General Aviation Apron An area to support the activities of general aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying. OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Contact Stand vs. Remote Stand Contact Stand Remote Stand Availability of aerobridge Comes with an aerobridge Most do not have an aerobridge Walking distance from terminal building to aircraft Relatively short Can be longer (depending on the distance between the terminal building and the respective stand) Passenger Comfort level High Low Availability of covered walkway for passengers Additional transporter requirement Yes Passenger walkway may not be covered Additional transporter not required Additional transporter required, i.e., bussing of passengers to the terminal building from the aircraft and vice versa Aircraft parking flexibility Less flexible because can only cater for Power-In, Push Back Flexible because not restricted by the position of the aerobridge. Can do Power-In, Power-Out OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Type of Ingress and Egress to the Apron 1) Power-In, Power-Out (Self-Maneuvering) - Also called Taxi-In, Taxi-Out - Saves equipment and personnel as the aircraft uses its own power - Suitable for airports with low traffic - Requires larger apron area - There may be danger of jet blast onto personnel in neighboring aircraft stands 2) Power-In, Push-Back (Tow Tug Assisted) - Also called Taxi-In, Push-Back; Power-In, Push-Out or Taxi-In, Push-Out - Lesser apron area required - More complicated maneuvering required to exit aircraft stand - Will take longer time for aircraft to exit the apron - More manpower required to tow the aircraft out of the aircraft stand OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Parking Methods on the Apron 1) Smallest gate area needed 2) Easy front loading and unloading of passengers 3) No powered movement near passenger building, hence less noise 4) No jet blast towards building 5) Need to be towed out sufficiently far before aircraft proceed on its own power 6) Ineffective for passenger loading/ unloading using rear door 1) Aircraft can move into and out of the gate under its own power 2) Front and rear loading/ unloading of passengers are possible 3) Breakaway jet blast and noise are pointed toward the building 4) Needed larger area than nose-in parking , but less than angled nose-in parking (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Parking Methods on the Apron 1) Easy aircraft maneuver under its own power 2) Easy front and rear loading/ unloading of passengers 3) No sharp turning movements, hence less noise and jet blast than angled parking 4) Largest gate frontage area needed 1) Aircraft can move into and out of the gate under its own power 2) Front and rear loading/ unloading of passengers are possible 3) Need larger area than nose-in parking 4) Creates more noise than nose-in parking (Source: Aerodrome Design Manual Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Safety Line • Apron safety line depicts the area that must be free of staff, vehicles and equipment when an aircraft is taxiing or being towed into position or has started engines in preparation for departure. • Ground servicing vehicles can cross the safety line once: • • • All engines have been shut down (complete stop of the aircraft), Anti-collision lights have been switched off, and, Chocks are on. Safety line for an Airbus A330-200 (source: ACI Apron Markings and Signs 2nd edition) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Lead-In Line • Lead-In Line is the line that is used to guide pilots from the taxiway or apron taxiway to the parking stand. • Continuous Lead-In Line (or Primary Lead-In Line) is used to indicate the most critical/ demanding aircraft for the MARS (Multiple Aircraft Ramp System) stand. Lead-In Line MARS Stand (Source: Google Maps) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Multiple Aircraft Receiving Stand (MARS) • Each stand will be able to hold either a single wide-body or two narrow-bodies, instead of only one aircraft regardless of its size • Increase overall handling capacity of the airport • Optimises the use of the aircraft stands, so that more passengers can be served through aerobridge stands rather than be bussed to and from remote parking bays (Source: Changi Airport Group, Ground operations safety manual) OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Service Roads • Channelise the movement of vehicles so that pilots know where these vehicles are and to prevent conflicts with aircraft or engine jet blast • Apron service road provides access to aircraft parking positions for Ground Service Equipment (GSE) and other vehicles • Airside service road provides connection to other terminal, cargo or GSE storage facilities • Minimum width of one lane of service road is four (4) meters OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE Service Roads There are 3 different types of service roads: 1) Head-of-stand service road configuration 2) Tail-of-stand service road configuration 3) Service road between aircraft Head-of-stand service road Service road between aircraft Tail-of-stand service road (Source: Google Maps)