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Positionality – why does it matter? “Articulating your positionality means locating yourself in your familial history, discerning where your knowledge comes from, and addressing the lived experiences that guide your perspective in your life, research, and teaching roles. We all i...

Positionality – why does it matter? “Articulating your positionality means locating yourself in your familial history, discerning where your knowledge comes from, and addressing the lived experiences that guide your perspective in your life, research, and teaching roles. We all inhabit intersectional identity groups that connote varying levels of power and privilege such as race, socioeconomic class, ability, religion, gender, and sexual orientation.” ( https://intheclass.arts.ubc.ca/renewed-project/discussion-topics-prompt s/discussion-prompts-positionality/ ) Consider how these factors have shaped your path here? Self-reflection can facilitate building new relationships, being open to new ideas (across fields and disciplines), and taking ownership on your journey forward Oral Stories The idea of “history” is not an unchanging one & Histories in any culture. Whether it is mythic, heroic, or civic, the story of the past serves a particular purpose and audience. As is the case with the oral traditions of many Indigenous nations, the oral tradition of the Hul’qumi’num-speaking peoples of the Coast Salish nations observe a difference between syuth (true histories) and sxwi’em’ (fables and moral tales). (Belshaw, Horton, and Nickel 5)  Huu-ay-aht story of 1700 flood The Delgamuukw v. Supreme Court of British Columbia Case In which oral histories were accepted as The power evidence in court The Inuit oral histories and testimony (long- of Oral ignored) finally led to the “discovery” of the wreck of the Franklin Expedition History The ships: The Terror and the Erebus For more: https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/after- 165-years-inuit-knowledge-leads-to- franklins-wrecks/ The ontological/epistemological divide Frameworks in a Euro-Western sense exist in the abstract. How they are articulated in action or behavior brings this abstraction into praxis; hence a division of epistemological/theoretical versus ontological/praxis. The difference in a Haudenosaunee or Anishnaabe framework is that our cosmological frameworks are not an abstraction but rather a literal and animate extension of Sky Woman’s and First Woman’s thoughts; it is impossible to separate theory from praxis if we believe in the original historical events of Sky Woman and First Woman. So it is not that Indigenous peoples do not theorize, but that these complex theories are not distinct from place. What is a Creation Story? What are Foundational Myths? At its most basic level, it is a story explaining the creation of the world A story that explains where a people come from It might contain expressions of worldviews, ways to seeing, being, and knowing It might gesture toward a larger cosmology (i.e. it is not a stand-alone story) Similar, and yet different, foundational myths (particularly in relation to national mythologies and political claims) are perhaps more limited in scope “Myth” does not mean ahistorical or fiction, as some foundational myths can be about specific historical events – told in a manner that accrues the power of myth  Beringia Land Bridge Theory “Archaeologists and anthropologists in the 1960s and ’70s pieced together a model of migration that involved an ice-free corridor to the east of the Rockies.” Artefacts in Tse’K’Wa (near Fort St. John, B.C.) & Clovis, New Mexico This theory has been challenged in two ways: evidence that there were sufficient resources to sustain southbound human populations in the corridor is thin a study of bison populations shows that the genetic pools of northern herds from Alaska and the Yukon did in fact mix with those of southern herds—strong evidence of an ice-free corridor—that scenario offers an alternative possibility: perhaps humans followed the southern herds northward. (Belshaw, Horton, and Nickel 15) Image Source: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/bering- land-bridge/ Some key points from Erlandson et al. History of sea-faring along the pacific (at least 50,000 BPE) Richness of kelp forests would have provided plentiful nutrition Lower sea levels would not only provide islands to move over, but also explain why there are a “lack” of older archaeological sites along the coasts “early coastal sites are rare from San Francisco Bay to Vancouver Island, probably because of a history of subsidence earthquakes and tsunamis associated with the Cascadia Subduction Zone” (170) “Showing that a coastal migration around the North Pacific was possible or even highly plausible is obviously not the same as demonstrating that such a migration took place.” (171) Before “contact” with Europeans “Complex agricultural societies first appeared in Central America and Coastal Peru…” (17) but then spread… In this regard, the original Indigenous farmers of the Americas were roughly contemporaneous with farming breakthroughs in China, the Middle East, and the Nile Valley. (17) The ingenuity of the “three-sisters”: corn, beans, and squash We will discuss Indigenous agriculture and science in more detail in the coming weeks “ramifications of having few domestic animals” (18) First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy Woodlands (east) – Haudenosaunee Haudenosaunee Confederacy may have been established as early as 1142 CE, although some scholars dispute that date as perhaps as much as three hundred years premature. In the Haudenosaunee account, fractious relations between the Onondaga, Onyota’a:ka (a.k.a. Oneida), Kanien’kehá:ka (Mohawk), Gayogohó:no (Cayuga), and Seneca were ended through the efforts of an elderly statesman (Hayonhwatha, Hiawatha (24) Tuscorora People joined the confederacy around 1722 The Iroquoian longhouse villages created and reflected tightly–knit communities in which decisions were made collectively but which were binding on no one without their consent. Independent action was both tolerated and respected; coercion in personal relations and diplomacy was not. (25) First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy Woodlands (east) – Anishinaabe – Three Council Fires Populations (on which there is more below) were growing and moving in the post-1100 period. Conflict arose from many directions, and alliances were always being forged. The Haudenosaunee Confederation is one example, but there are others with far greater reach. The Council of Three Fires was struck as early as 796 CE at Michilimackinac between the Anishinaabe peoples—the Ojibwe (a.k.a. Ojibwa, Chippewa), Odawa (a.k.a. Ottawa), and Potawatomi—and occupied the lands of the Laurel Complex. The Wendat probably founded their confederacy early in the 1500s, and the Wabanaki(mostly in what is now the Maritime provinces) formed theirs around 1680. There is every likelihood that these alliances followed on earlier arrangements and that they were regularly renewed. First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy Far North Thule/Inuit spread from Alaska to Labrador Hudson Bay Drainage Vast swathe occupied by the Cree Plains Diplomacy: Iron Alliance, or Nehiyaw-Pwat between Plains Cree and Assiniboine… (eventually also Saulteaux and Métis) Northwest Coast Numerous nations… “more than thirty distinct languages” in what is now B.C. alone (28) What is a treaty? A settlement or arrangement arrived at by treating or negotiation; an agreement, covenant, compact, contract. 3.b. 1430– spec. A contract between two or more states, relating to peace, truce, alliance, commerce, or other international relation; also, the document embodying such contract, in modern usage formally signed by plenipotentiaries appointed by the government of each state. (Now the prevailing sense. A formal agreement between different groups Provides benefits Demands reciprocity Demands responsibility Indigenous Treaty Making ““treaty processes” were grounded in the worldviews, language, knowledge systems, and political cultures of the nations involved, and they were governed by the common Indigenous ethics of justice, peace, respect, reciprocity, and accountability. Indigenous peoples understood these agreements in terms of relationship, and renewal processes were paramount in maintaining these international agreements. They also viewed treaties in terms of both rights and responsibilities, and they took their responsibilities in maintaining treaty relations seriously. Treaty as relationship – Nishnaabeg Perspective What are some examples of treaty making that Leanne Simpson provides? Treaty with other-than-human beings Fish Nation Hoof Nation – Moose, Caribou, Deer, etc. (35) Treaty with other Indigenous Nations Drum & Song with Dakota Gdoo-naaganinaa or “Our Dish” treaty with Haudenosaunee (36-37) Grounded Normativity In other words: how a worldview and way of being in the world – in relationship with others – is shaped by the contexts (including responsibilities and obligations) of specific places nêhiýaw pwât – also known as Iron Alliance Originally an alliance between nêhiyaw and Nakoda/Assiniboine peoples, likely established in the 17th century, it developed into a wider alliance incorporating various bands and groups of Métis and Saulteaux people through the late 18th and early 19th centuries  “As they entered into negotiations with the Crown, the Iron Alliance operated within the framework of their cultural protocol of dealing with an outside Kinship, group. An important component of this protocol was that, before an agreement could take place, Reciprocal outsiders were expected to accept a kinship role and assume the responsibility of reciprocity that Obligations, came with that role. The treaty, then, represents, in part, the creation of a relationship between First and Treaty Nations and Canada based on socially constructed Making roles and responsibilities grounded in First Nations’ kinship practices. It was also clear, however, that the Canadian government failed to understand the significance of entering into such a relationship from a First Nations perspective” (64) “proto-contact” / Contact / Post-Contact… Happens differently and at different times across North America “The Dorset had already encountered Europeans as much as five hundred years before the arrival of French navigator (and kidnapper) Jacques Cartier in 1534” (Belshaw, Nickel, and Horton 34) Encounters with the Norsemen – Vikings “the Beothuk and the Mi’kmaq were familiar from about 1530 with fishers and whalers from the Basque homelands straddling France and Spain” West Coast nations only encountered Europeans in the mid to late 1700s (18th century) “proto-contact” “It’s that era in which European influences were being felt by Indigenous peoples even though actual Europeans may have been nowhere in sight” (34) The “refers to the exchange of diseases, ideas, food crops, and populations between the New World Columbian and the Old World following the voyage to the Americans by Christopher Columbus in 1492” (Nunn and Qian 163) Exchange This exchange transformed the world Indigenous Trade Networks Emergence of transportation networks Indigenous pathfinding informed, and continues to inform our present-day road networks Emergence of trade languages E.g. Chinook in what is now B.C.  Indigenous trade: “the hemispheric norm was bartering. Even in the most urban communities in Mesoamerica, trade was conducted in goods and not coin” (Belshaw et al. 42) “Indigenous societies had the ability to process, stockpile, and transport goods in quantities that made it worth their while. We see evidence of large- scale production in extensive wooden racks used to dry fish on every coastline, riverbank, and lakeside. We see it in the harvesting and processing of bison across the Great Plains. We see long-term strategies for storage in the Mexica warehouses at Tenochtitlan, Pueblo granaries, food storage caches among the kekuli pits at Keatley Creek, bent cedar boxes used to pack oolichan grease on the Northwest Coast, and the large cellars developed by the Metepenagiag on the Miramichi.” (Belshaw et al. 42) Image: Elizabeth Fenn, Encounters at the Heart of the World, pp. 235  Mandan Corn The Mandan people grew corn in such abundance that not only did other peoples (Indigenous and non-Indigenous alike) come to trade for corn, but the Mandan stockpiled corn by the tons Mandan Village - Painted by George Catlin, circa 1832  Invasive species such as the Brown (aka Norway) Rat also caused massive disruptions – in the 1830s, rats chewed through the Mandan corn caches with devastating effects. The ground literary crumbled in some places: “the very pavements under their wigwams were so vaulted and sapped, that they were actually falling to the ground” (George Catlin qtd. in Fenn, 292) Indigenous / non-Indigneous Trade Northeast: “French expeditions also appeared in the 1500s, and some trade took place. These voyages also mark the first documented incidence of abductions of Indigenous peoples and their transportation to Europe. Still, even with the rise of the French colonial presence in the 1600s and the takeoff of trade in the area around the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, European numbers remained low and the extent of their reach was entirely determined by the participation and permission of Indigenous communities. In 1720, after more than a century of settlement in the St. Lawrence Valley, the population of the French colony was fewer than twenty-five thousand—less than that of Wendake Ehen (a.k.a. the Wendake Confederacy, Huronia) a century earlier” (Belshaw et al. 43) “Well-armed Europeans were, at the very least, a wildcard in ongoing conflicts between neighbouring peoples.” (44) Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies The Haudenosaunee More agrarian society than the Anishinaabe Consider why: material conditions & different relationships with territory (the shield; wild rice country, etc.) … but some Anishinaabe certainly engaged in agriculture – see: Peguis & Saulteaux around Netley Creek in the Red River Valley from the late 18th century onward Generally, “farming societies were consistently larger and more densely packed than their non-agrarian, foraging neighbours” (47) Population density & networks of villages; adapted “three sisters” “The St. Lawrence and Wendat villages were thus the larder of their Algonquin-speaking neighbours to the north and west. This involved a mutually advantageous exchange of respective surpluses: fatty protein for dried carbohydrates, lush fur blankets for practical ceramics and baskets of pulses, bales of feathers for bundles of sacred tobacco, and so on. It was here, across a frontier knitted together by lakes and rivers, that two food cultures met.” (47) Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies Wendat Confederacy “brought together five Iroquoian-speaking communities: the Attignawantans, Attigneenongnahacs, Arendarhonons, Tahontaenrats, and Ataronchronons” (47) Culturally related to Haudenossaune “The trademark features of Iroquoian nations—a farming economy and longhouses that held several families organized along clan lines in villages surrounded by tall palisades (a reflection of political tensions in the region)—were all present in Wendake” (48) “Between about 1550 and about 1580, the Laurentian peoples—including the large villages at Stadacona and Hochelaga—were wiped from the map. In the seventy years that followed, Wendake was shattered, destroyed as a political and economic unit and scattered as a people. This represents an enormous change in the geo-politics of the region.” Rather… “Make a special note of the fact that only Wendake Ehen—the location of the Wendat near Georgian Bay—was destroyed. The Wendat Dispersal, carried on, taking their home—Wendake—with them wherever they went. This is important not because of the power of “the destruction narrative” that sees them doomed to disappear. This is a theme you’ll find throughout European destruction (and some Indigenous) accounts of Indigenous societies.” (Belshaw et al., n2, 47) Settler colonialism “deliberate physical occupation of land as a method of asserting ownership over land and resource” (Chelsea Vowel 16) “invasion is a structure not an event... Settler colonialism destroys to replace” (Wolfe 388) “Whatever settlers may say... the primary motive for elimination is not race (or religion, ethnicity, grade of civilization, etc.) but access to territory. Territoriality is settler colonialism’s specific, irreducible element” (388) Civilization / Savagery Binary A pervasive “super-myth” that was “constructed to serve the material, cultural, and ideological ends of the colonial enterprise” (Larocque 4) “The Civ/Sav distinction supported the marginalization of Indigenous peoples, placing them on the periphery as participants in mainstream society, which to a certain extent continues today. Defining Colonialism – 3 general types (as per Belshaw, et al.) Type 1: Temporary, seasonal resource extraction – no interest in settling and putting down roots so to speak Example: Basque and Breton fishing and whaling fleets Type 2: The get-rich-quick scheme; Indigenous wealth-extraction focused exploration consisting of plunder and pillage. Example: the Spanish in the Caribbean Basin; also : “Sixteenth-century French expeditions into the St. Lawrence Valley were tasked with finding a northern “El Dorado,” a city of gold to compare with Cuzco. They were disappointed, of course, and the prospect of a French colony of any kind in the region was deferred for half a century. Similar motives drove English, Swedish, Scottish, and Dutch explorations of the East Coast of North America and farther south, many of which stalled badly.” Defining Colonialism – 3 general types (as per Belshaw, et al.) Type 3: “The third model of European colonialism—one that attracted European investors and empires—was the planter model developed by the Spanish on Caribbean islands.” Example “one that attracted European investors and empires—was the planter model developed by the Spanish on Caribbean islands” (77) Depended on Indigenous labour – voluntary, indentured, but most often forced. “The experience of New Spain established ideas and goals that infected all of Western Europe. European colonialism became inextricably connected to exploitation of Indigenous populations and, very often, their displacement and resettlement” (77) Wabanaki Resistance Also known as the “people of the dawn” – the Wabanaki are a confederacy of Algonquian language speaking peoples on the Atlantic seaboard, in what is now Eastern Canada and northeastern States – made up principally five peoples: the Abenaki, Mi’kmaq, the Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot The Mourning Wars / The Beaver Wars “A series of conflicts involving the Haudenosaunee against other Indigenous peoples, largely aligned with the French (and along with the French), that spanned the 17th century, and the St. Lawrence River valley and the Great Lakes region; though named the Mourning / Beaver wars, implying that population replacement (raiding & kinship making) and access to Beaver belts (for territorial and economic reasons) were the impetus for the multigenerational conflict, scholars have recently posited a “more complex strategy” (Parmenter 35) at work: “A long-term commitment to intense warfare over an extensive geographic area reflected the Iroquois League’s effort to engage an increasingly multifaceted and complex landscape in an era of European settler intrusion.” (35) “From 1640 to 1646, the Iroquois contested French colonizers for the human resources that the ostensibly “Christian” Hurons and Algonquins represented: a means of demographic recovery, military strength, trade contacts, and geographical knowledge of (and access to) vital hunting territories for procurement of beaver.” (34) Mourning/Beaver Wars – 17 century th “the strategy underlying the adoption of captives taken in wars derived from the very assumptions at the heart of Iroquois cultural traditions regarding social organization, which privileged dynamic innovations over static forms of identity construction” (37) “Notwithstanding increasing defensive concerns on the home front, long-distance Iroquois offensive campaigns reached their farthest documented spatial range in 1662. Jesuit Simon LeMoyne, during his sojourn in Onondaga country, recorded a dizzying array of destinations for Iroquois war parties. In addition to retaliatory actions against the Abenakis and Susquehannocks in 1662, Iroquois armies targeted Shawnees and Quapaws in the lower Ohio River valley, Ojibwas on the southern shore of Lake Superior, refugee Hurons near modern Green Bay, Wisconsin, Crees in northern Québec, and Sioux in modern Minnesota.” (37) Adoption of firearms, and need for gunpowder, “necessitated the maintenance of diplomatic ties to colonial suppliers” (37); however, the Haudenosaunee would also play the market – trading with English, Dutch, and sometimes French traders at Albany, New Amsterdam (later New York), Montreal, etc. “The presence of adoptees within Iroquoia greatly expanded the League nations’ freedom of movement and made a vital contribution to the ongoing persistence of Iroquois nations in portions of their traditional homelands today” (38) The Great Peace of Montréal - 1701 In 1701 – some 39 Indigenous nations sent some 1300 delegates to Montreal to negotiate and establish a wider, regional peace between nations formerly at war [French and Indigenous] European sources will often credit the French governor, Louis-Hector de Callière, but Belshaw and et al. contend, and contest, that “negotiations [were] largely conducted by Wendat” (Belshaw, et al., 88) Marked an end of the Mourning Wars / the Beaver Wars in the St. Lawrence Valley & eastern Great Lakes region, but also allowed the Haudenosaunee “to pursue other conquests to the south and west instead” (88) For more: https://www.historymuseum.ca/history-hall/great-peace-montreal- treaty/ The Seven Years’ War – a turning point The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) Also known as The French-Indian War in the U.S.; or La Guerre de la Conquête in French-Canada A global war between European imperial powers; France & Allies against England & Allies Theatre of conflict includes numerous locations in the in the Americas, Europe, and Asia On Turtle Island, Indigenous nations were aligned with different sides Wabanaki aligned with France Haudenosaunee aligned with England The Royal Proclamation of 1763 Drafted in 1763 to address the aftermath of the Seven Years’ War (such as shifting territorial claims, Indigenous sovereignty, etc.); issued to subtend the administration of British territories in North America Issued by King George III Four-part document: Key points Establishes Crown-First Nation Relationship Establishes Treaty-Making Process Recognizes First Nations Right (though arguably only to better consolidate later territorial acquisition by the British) The proclamation was not an agreement, there was no consultation, it was a decree handed down by the British Sovereign Treaty of Niagara - 1764 “some two thousand chiefs in attendance and over twenty-four Indigenous nations represented” (25) Sir Willian Johnson presented the Belt of the Covenant Chain – encoding the relationship, the agreement to live together, not as “subjection” Hudson’s Bay Company What was the purpose of the “Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) Charter” in 1670? It granted the HBC... The “exclusive right to trade in furs...” within its mapped territory; and the “...political authority to govern lands and British subjects inhabiting them [...] for the better Advancement and Continuance of the said Trade” Essentially, it motivated and justified colonial ambitions of British traders/Company settlers North-West Company 1779 Did not have a company charter; organizational solidarity was largely based on personal and familial associations Taking trade inland after 1763; increasing reliance on Indigenous networks and knowledge Fur Trade 1600s-1830s: Beaver was primarily trapped for its water-resistant pelt Population of +/- 6,000,000 prior to fur trade; hunted to mere extinction Fancy furs included Mink, Marten, Otter, Fisher, Muskrat, Fox... Late 1700s-1880: Buffalo were hunted for robes and their bones for grinding sugar, fertilizer, and making “Fine-Bone China” During the Industrial Revolution, they were hunted to make leather [conveyor] belts Population of +/- 30,000,000 plains buffalo and 170,000 woods buffalo prior to commercial hunting; hunted to mere extinction Key Terms for Today Ethnogenesis The formation and development of an ethnic group Peoplehood & Nationhood Ways of conceptualizing distinct groups of people; the “mirror images of the social relations they analyze” (Andersen “Core” 19) Peoplehood How we are who we are (as a group); engages worldviews, languages, traditions, spiritual practices, etc. Nationhood Political project; how groups imagine themselves collectively and express common political aims and desires for self-determination Takeaways re: Fur Trade in the late 18 century th By the end of the 18th century, there are, between the HBC & NWC, hundreds of non-Indigenous/Indigenous families spread across Rupert’s Land Many of these families are no longer contractually tied, or are only occasionally, seasonally tied to one of the two companies Some of these families are now multigenerational Some of these multigenerational families are now marrying each other: fur traders marrying the daughters of their colleagues, etc. Communities are forming; intricate webs of kinships are taking shape Emergence of li gens libres – the Free People / Freemen The Importance of Women in the Fur Trade [The] relationship between women and European economies began during the fur trade, although hard work has always been part of women’s lives. Survival in the northern forests and plains required constant activity and strategic thinking. It was that harsh reality that pushed European men and their enterprises toward the skills of women. The necessity of having First Nations women as companions and helpmates was an accepted aspect of life during the fur trade unacknowledged in Canadian historiography until Jennifer Brown’s Strangers in Blood (1980) and Sylvia Van Kirk’s Many Tender Ties (1980). These seminal works emphasized women’s roles in the network of fur trade families and communities, recognizing the importance of their knowledge of the country, their work as mothers, guides, negotiators, and interpreters. Other aspects of their lives as workers are less known. (Racette, 149)  What is Métis Peoplehood? “The primary tenets of Métis peoplehood, of what brings Métis together as a collective people, are kinship and relatedness, mobility, and geography. Kinship pertains to the way Métis relate to and with one another, to non- Métis, and to the world around them. The latter of these refers to how Métis move through and occupy space and, lastly, to how they give meaning to place through developing connections to multiple landscapes.” (Jennifer Adese 61-2 “Reading”)  The Métis Nation; key moments of nationalist expression / assertion Red River Core, Colony, etc. Battle of Seven Oaks (1816) The Sayer Trial (1849) Battle of Grand Coteau (1851) Red River Resistance (1869-70) North-West Resistance (1885) Contemporary Political Resurgence: L’Union nationale métisse St. Joseph (1890s - ); MN;A (1930s); MMF (1960s) MNC (1983); Court Recognition: Powley (2003); MMF vs. Canada (2013), Image Source: https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-oaks-incident The Pemmican Wars (1812-21) Selkirk Settlement established in 1812; disruption of NWC provisioning routes Early settlers faced food insecurities – Pemmican Proclamation in 1814 NWC & Métis allies interpretated this as an act of war Violence erupted across the North-West between the HBC & NWC For the Métis – this conflict sparked the desire for recognition & respect for their self-determination – hence, the rise of Métis nationalism  The Battle of Seven Oaks On 19 June 1816, while transporting pemmican, Métis aligned with the NWC, led by Cuthbert Grant, encountered a group of HBC employees and Selkirk Settlers led by Robert Semple Argument ensued; tensions rose; a gun went off William Coltman, commissioned to investigate the incident the following year, determined that the HBC fired the first shot Violence erupted leaving 21 dead on the side of the HBC and 1 dead on the side of the Métis Significance of First Nations Women in the Emergence of the Métis “No matter how desirous the French freemen were to make it on their own, the reality is that if they could not demonstrate a sufficient level of acculturation to guarantee their families’ survival in their social, cultural, and political milieu, they would not have been able to form their own bands. In other words, the French freemen would have had to become bicultural. First Nations women played a significant role in the acculturation process of the freemen. By emphasizing the European cultural influences on Métis cultural formation, scholars have erased the significance of First Nations culture and the role of First Nations and Métis women on Métis cultural development.” (Innes 106) “It was the women’s kinship links that enabled new bands to be established, and it was the maintenance of these links that allowed the bands to survive.” (106) Indigenous Fur Trade “To state that the Métis were unique among other Indigenous People on the Northern Plains – without any acknowledgement that First Nations people also participated in the fur trade in many of the same roles as the Métis, because of their acceptance of capitalism – can be seen as unwittingly reinforcing a racial hierarchy based on different racial characteristics. Considering the extent to which the Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux were intimately tied to the fur trade as middlemen, suppliers, labourers, and consumers (see Ray 1974, 1980), the assertion that the Métis were unique in embracing capitalism requires more context so as not to imply racial distinctiveness.” (107) As the nêhiyaw-pwat is often also referred to as the Iron Alliance, consider what “Iron” entails – what is the “Iron” in Iron Alliance?  nêhiýaw pwât nêhiýaw – self-ascription term – it is what the nêhiýaw Cree call themselves – in Cree, or in nehiyawewin pwât - nêhiýaw pwât = Cree Assiniboine terminology  A political and military alliance Originally an alliance between Cree and Assiniboine nêhiýaw peoples, likely in the 17th century, it developed in a wider alliance incorporating various bands and bunches of Métis pwât and Saulteaux people through the late 18th and early 19th centuries – this “alliance” is subtended by kinship relations  A political and military alliance Originally an alliance between Cree and Assiniboine nêhiýaw peoples, likely in the 17th century, it developed in a wider alliance incorporating various bands and bunches of Métis pwât and Saulteaux people through the late 18th and early 19th centuries – this “alliance” is subtended by kinship relations The Red River Resistance – 1869-70) Contesting Canada’s unilateral acquisition of the territory without consultation, and to ensure that their territorial, political, and cultural rights were protected, the Métis (initially led by the French Métis) formed a government to negotiate the North-West’s entry into Canadian Confederation Sought broad support across English and French parishes, as well as across Indigenous and non- Indigenous communities Developed a list of rights (4 iterations) https://www.metismuseum.ca/media/document.php/14525.Metis %20List%20of%20Rights.pdf Initiated negotiations with Canada by sending representatives to Ottawa Administered / Governed the settlement The Manitoba Act: Promises Made Manitoba Act granted royal assent on 12 May 1870 Recognized Manitoba as a Province & not a territory But established the “postage stamp” boundaries Section 31: Guaranteed 1.4 million acres of land for the Métis Some initial guarantees for language and religious rights No amnesty for the leaders of the resistance The Frog LakeIncident (1885) “For the Cree, there is no fourth time to make a request. The War Chief and his men killed the Indian agent and other men at Frog Lake and took the food for the people. For this action of enforcing their treaty right, Big Bear and his people were hunted by the government. They were not captured, even though they were chased by a large force. In the end, Big Bear and his people surrendered to the government forces to save the women and children from further hardship. The War Chief and others were hung at North Battleford, and Big Bear was sent to prison. Big Bear should never have been imprisoned, but the Canadian government would not or could not understand the difference between a Chief and a War Chief.” (183) The Indian Act - 1876 Becomes law in 1876 Only applies to Status First Nations Who gets Status? What does it do? “The Indian Act... is the legislation that has intruded on the lives and cultures of Status Indians more than any other law... they give the state powers that range from defining how one is born or naturalized into ‘Indian’ status to administering the estate of an Aboriginal person after death... gave Parliament control over Indian political structures, land-holding patterns, and resource and economic development. It covered almost every important aspect of the daily lives of Aboriginal peoples on reserves.” (Henry and Frances, qtd. in Cannon 38) Scrip “individual entitlement” A “coupon” that could in theory be redeemed for land Issues: Convoluted process Land often nowhere near where the Métis were or wanted to live Estimates are that over 90% of scrip coupons end up in the hands of white land speculators Major problems: Prone to great frauds and abuses & sharp dealings “The story of the Métis in our schools ends with Louis Riel, but that’s Leads to dispossession where the scrip story begins” (Zachary Davis)  Scrip is different as you move across the prairies Scrip considered under the Manitoba Act Scrip considered after Treaties established with First Nations Scrip considered at the same time as Treaties negotiated with First Nations Money Scrip vs. Land Scrip Scrip: A Different processes, but similar inequities Money Scrip Convoluted 1$ per acre of land to which the person was entitled As land increased in value however, the “value” of money System scrip diminished Land Scrip process for establishing title over land “Both were intended to give the recipient a certain amount of Crown- owned land. These scrip certificates were issued in different monetary values … or amounts of land… the different types of scrip also had different regulations governing their use, which in turn affected their value on the scrip market” (Ens and Sawchuk 148) Amendments to the Manitoba Act Sprague notes that the Manitoba Act was amended 11 times between 1873 and 1884 people eligible for allotments was reduced from approx. 10,000 to less than 6,000; heads of households barred from applying, but after Governor Morris’ warning of possible trouble over the matter, heads of households were once again allowed to apply – but only for money scrip, and not land scrip On grounds that the two populations should be treated equally, the descendants of original white settlers thus gained what the partly Indian heads of families had just lost.” (Sprague, “Manitoba Lands” 78) 1875: Government undertakes survey (collecting affidavits) to determine who would be eligible to apply and receive land and who would get scrip  1876 it is impossible to say whether the hundreds of persons who collected scrip at the Dominion Lands office in Winnipeg on grounds Scrip in that they were the authorized agents of the rightful claimant did indeed have such Manitoba authorization” (“Government Lawlessness” 419) 1886: Discriminatory laws introduced that “protected the dispossession of children’s land” Land vs. Money Scrip “Children of Manitoba Metis were granted individual patents to real estate in the amount of 240 acres, and as a parallel process, adults were granted money scrip that could be exchanged for Dominion Lands” (Tough and Dimmer 225) “Essentially, scrip was a coupon, issued to individual claimants/grantees which could be redeemed either directly for homestead lands (i.e. 160 acres of land scrip could obtain 160 acres of land) or money scrip which could be used to purchase the same lands.” (227)  “The story of the Métis in our schools ends with Louis Riel, but that’s where the scrip story begins” (Zachary Davis) Different process than in Manitoba, but Scrip in the the promise, or obligation toward Indigenous peoples in the North-West North-West stem from the same place as that of those in Manitoba Promise: “compensation for lands required for the purpose of settlement” Importance of Equity The Trial of Louis Riel – an overview 6 July 1885 – Riel is charged with 6 counts of high treason Only person charged with “high treason,” which carries the death penalty Seventy-one other persons were charged with “treason-felony” which does not carry the death penalty if found guilty 20 July 1885 – Riel pleads not guilty Trial is held in Regina; defence lawyers from Québec are assigned to Riel and they pursue a defence of insanity despite Riel’s protestations “challenged the jury panel on the basis that the magistrate had personally selected the members of the panel. When this challenge failed, and the jurors were chosen, the defence was left with a jury without francophones, Catholics, or Métis.” (Groarke 205) “The plain fact of the matter is that the jury that tried Riel was not representative of the community and did not include his peers” (Groarke 205) 1 August 1885 – jury finds Riel guilty of treason, but recommend mercy (the jury foreman was apparently in tears). Judge Richardson sentences Riel to death (only option available under the Treason Act). Road Allowance communities Road Allowance: unused Crown land designed for the building of roads on typically “marginal” pieces of land / “scrub” land. Métis settled on these pieces of land – no taxes, no services: “three generations of Métis were unable to receive a basic education” (https://indigenouspeoplesatlasof canada.ca/article/road-allowance- people/) Métis and Inuit Experiences “The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, however, makes the point that we know far less about the history of Métis children in residential or public schools than we do of the experiences of status Indian students.” (Belshaw et al. 144) Ottawa paid little attention to Inuit peoples’ needs before the middle of the twentieth century. (144) As the Cold War took off in the 1950s, too, there were growing concerns about expressions of Canadian sovereignty in the North: an official Canadian presence in Arctic communities thus served a variety of economic and political purposes. Suddenly, then, Inuit children found themselves in newly-established residential schools funded by Ottawa. (145) After the war - discrimination Indigenous contributions reduced to racial stereotypes First Nations reserves in Western Canada reduced to give land to returning non- Indigenous soldiers Indigenous veterans denied access to shared funds to ensure veterans received proper burials Indigenous veterans denied access to Veteran Relief Allowance (during Great Depression – decision eventually reversed) Métis veterans “shuffled between federal and provincial governments in efforts to access veterans’ services” (45)  In contrast to Alberta, where some obtained a land base for several communities (Alberta Métis Settlements & Ewing Commission in 1938) in Manitoba some Métis were still being dispossessed of their land. “The search for new homelands led to areas spurned by The Settlement of Ontarians and immigrant groups in search of prime agricultural lands. These Métis founded new Ste. Madeleine – communities such as Richer, Ste. Genevieve, St. Ambroise, Ste. Amelie, Toutes-Aides and Ste. Madeleine. 1900s Mostly located on “scrub land,” the farms provided only a basic livelihood but offered independence and self- sufficiency.” (Diane Payment - http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/mb_history/17/stemadelei ne.shtml) Ste. Madeleine is north of St. Lazare, between the Assiniboine River and the MB/SK border L’Union nationale métisse St. Joseph du Manitoba An organization founded in 1887 in St. Vital, Manitoba, by kin and associates of those who fought at Batoche in 1885 Oldest, still active Métis organization: https://www.unmsjm.org/a-notre-sujet Main objectives: “defence of Métis rights, the rehabilitation of Métis history, and the promotion of Michif French language and culture” (Payment 267) Largely made up of “middle-class professionals and farmers” (Ens and Sawchuk 115)  James Patrick Brady Born 1908 (just north of St. Paul des Métis) – disappeared on 7 June 1967 on a prospecting trip in Northern Saskatchewan with his Cree co-worker, Absolom Halkett Came from a privileged background: grandfather was Laurent Garneau; his mother, Philomena Archange Garneau was the first Métis registered nurse in Alberta; his father, James Brady Sr., was a well-educated, successful merchant originally from Ireland. Self-educated Marxist, socialist, he would labour time and again for poor and working-class Métis and First Nations people in Alberta and Saskatchewan Fought in 2nd World War Malcolm Norris Born to Edmonton businessman, John Norris, and Métis mother, Euphrosine Plante, in 1900 Norris would serve for a time a member of the RCMP; he also worked for the Hudson’s Bay Company in the early 20th century Helped organize the Métis Association of Alberta in late 1920s and early 1930s Served in the Royal Canadian Airforce during the 2nd World War Continued to advocate for Métis political and economic issues Died 1967 Ewing Commission – 1934 – shifting the narrative The Preamble to the Association’s Written Submission: “We will undertake to show the depths of poverty to which the Metis people have been reduced since the surrender of Rupert’s Land. We will set out the economic and social measures demanded of the Government to bring economic improvement and security to the Metis population…” (89) “The history of the Metis in Western Canada is really the history of their attempts to defend their constitutional rights against the encroachment of nascent monopoly capital… (89) “[T]he picture of the Metis as a sort of savage people has been deliberately presented by the conquerors in order to falsify issues and attempt to present some kind of justification for the treacherous way in which these original pioneers were treated” (90) AB Métis Settlements Established in 1938 In 1938, the Government of Alberta passed the “Métis Population Betterment Act” and established the Alberta Métis Settlements Originally 12 settlements comprising over 1.25 million acres of land The new settlements, or “colonies,” were: Buffalo Lake, Cold Lake, East Prairie, Elizabeth, Fishing Lake, Gift Lake, Kikino, Marlboro, Paddle Prairie, Big Prairie (now Peavine), Touchwood and Wolf Lake (those in bold were later dissolved). “Touchwood (1940), Marlboro (1941), Cold Lake (1956) and Wolf Lake (1960). Métis withdrew their request for settlement at Touchwood and Marlboro because the lands were not deemed suitable. Due to a declining population, Cold Lake gave up its status, followed by Wolf Lake.” (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metis- settlements) Broader Contexts – late 1920s & 1930s Great Depression A global economic downtown following the stock market crash of 1929 – a period of high unemployment, poverty, widespread bankruptcies, etc. In Canada, gross national expenditure fell 42% between 1929 and 1932 Over 30% unemployment by 1933 The “Dirty Thirties” Severe drought hit the great plains (Canada & U.S.) Plagues of grasshoppers; severe hailstorms caused crop failures Saskwatchewan’s income “plummeted by 90 per cent within two years” (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/great-depression) The Dust Bowl “When the Great Depression arrived in the 1930s, wheat prices plummeted. Farmers had no choice but to harvest even more grassland to increase their crop yield to make a profit. The drought arrived in 1931. Because the deep-rooted prairie grasses were gone, the bare and over-plowed farmland had no anchor to the earth, causing soils to blow off of fields and creating massive dust storms that had never been seen before.” (https://www.ducks.ca/dustbowl/) The Burning of Ste. Madeleine – 1935-1938 In 1935, under the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act, Ste. Madeleine, was designed to become a community pasture. Aim of the act was to “turn abandoned land into community pastures [but] this was not the case with Ste. Madeleine since none of this communities land had been abandoned” (Métis Displacement 2) Poverty rampant during the “great depression”; Métis unable to pay taxes on their properties. “The relocation was poorly planned, was not supported by adequate resources, and was implemented in an inhumane way. Between 1938 and 1940 the people were forced out, their homes burned, dogs shot and their school and church were torn down” (1) The community was turned into pastureland for Euro-Canadian settlers / farmers / ranchers… we might understand this event as another form of ethnic cleansing, the pushing out and away of people deemed undesirable by settler-Canadian society (by the town of St. Lazare, specifically)