INDG Studies Notes PDF

Unit 1 Definitions through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Method: A systematic way of doing something; in Indigenous Studies, it often incorporates Indigenous knowledge systems, oral traditions, and protocols. 2. Methodology: The overarching framework guiding research; Indigenous...

Unit 1 Definitions through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Method: A systematic way of doing something; in Indigenous Studies, it often incorporates Indigenous knowledge systems, oral traditions, and protocols. 2. Methodology: The overarching framework guiding research; Indigenous methodologies prioritize community-based approaches, relational accountability, and respect for Indigenous worldviews. 3. Qualitative Research: Research focusing on understanding social phenomena through non-numerical data like interviews and storytelling, often aligning with Indigenous oral traditions. 4. Quantitative Research: Research involving numerical data and statistical analysis, which must be contextualized to avoid misrepresenting Indigenous realities. 5. Insurgent Research Methodology: A research approach that challenges colonial structures, centers Indigenous voices, and supports decolonization e orts. 6. Tribal Epistemology: Knowledge systems specific to individual tribes or nations, rooted in place, tradition, and relationships. 7. Ontology: The study of being; Indigenous ontologies recognize interconnectedness among humans, the land, and non-human entities. 8. Axiology: The study of values and ethics; Indigenous axiology emphasizes respect, reciprocity, and responsibility. 9. Indigenous: Refers to the original inhabitants of a land, emphasizing connections to specific territories and cultural practices. 10. First Nations: A term used in Canada for Indigenous peoples who are not Métis or Inuit, recognizing their distinct nations. 11. Métis: People of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry, particularly in Canada, with distinct cultural identities and governance structures. 12. Inuit: Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions, including northern Canada, with unique languages, traditions, and governance systems. 13. Aboriginal: An umbrella term used in Canada’s Constitution Act (1982) encompassing First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples. 14. Native American: A term commonly used in the United States to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. The 5 W’s for Key Topics: 1. Role of Education – TRC (Truth and Reconciliation Commission) – Murray Sinclair o Who: Murray Sinclair, Chair of the TRC. o What: Highlighted the role of education in reconciliation, emphasizing the need to teach accurate Indigenous histories.  o Where: Canada-wide, focusing on residential school survivors and communities. o When: TRC operated from 2008-2015, with the final report released in 2015. o Why: Education was central to assimilation policies; it must now be central to reconciliation e orts. 2. Treaties in Manitoba o Who: Indigenous nations and the Crown. o What: Legal agreements outlining land use, rights, and relationships. o Where: Across Manitoba (e.g., Treaties 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10). o When: Signed between 1871-1910. o Why: To formalize land sharing agreements, though often misunderstood or violated by the Crown. 3. Manitoba Métis Federation (MMF) Regions o Who: The Métis Nation in Manitoba. o What: Seven regions representing Métis communities (e.g., Winnipeg, The Pas). o Where: Across Manitoba. o When: Established in 1967. o Why: To advocate for Métis rights and governance. 4. Inuit in Manitoba o Who: Inuit communities and individuals. o What: Inuit living in urban centers like Winnipeg, with access to services through organizations like Tunngasugit. o Where: Primarily urban Manitoba. o When: Migration patterns increased in the 20th and 21st centuries. o Why: For education, employment, and better access to services. 5. Province of Manitoba Aboriginal Population Census 2016 o Who: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit populations. o What: Indigenous peoples made up 18% of Manitoba’s population. o Where: Urban and rural areas, with a significant population in Winnipeg. o When: Data collected during the 2016 Census. o Why: Reflects the growing Indigenous population and its diversity in Manitoba. Key Concepts: 1. Indigenous Studies R’s of Research: o Respect: Honoring Indigenous knowledge, traditions, and people. o Relevance: Research must address community priorities and concerns. o Reciprocity: Ensuring mutual benefit between researchers and communities. o Responsibility: Upholding ethical standards and relational accountability. 2. The Role of Indigenous Studies: o Destruction: Critiquing and dismantling colonial narratives. o Dismantling: Exposing systemic inequalities and structures of oppression. o Exposure: Highlighting the ongoing impacts of colonization. o Creation: Building spaces for Indigenous knowledge systems, governance, and resurgence. Unit 2: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Kelp Forest: A diverse marine ecosystem found along coastal regions, kelp forests are vital for sustaining marine life, providing habitat and food sources for fish, invertebrates, and other organisms. For many Indigenous coastal communities, kelp forests hold cultural significance, linking to traditional practices, food sources, and spiritual beliefs. 2. Beringia: The land and maritime region that once connected Siberia to Alaska during the last Ice Age, serving as a migration corridor for people, animals, and plants. It played a crucial role in the migration of early Indigenous peoples into the Americas. 3. Angakoks, or Shaman: Spiritual leaders or healers in Inuit and other Indigenous cultures, angakoks serve as intermediaries between the human world and the spirit world. They perform rituals, heal the sick, and provide guidance based on visions and spiritual experiences. 4. Coppers: Valued ceremonial objects in the Pacific Northwest, coppers were made from metal (typically copper or bronze) and symbolized wealth, social status, and power. They were often given as gifts or used in potlatch ceremonies to reinforce social bonds and alliances. 5. Kaianeraserakowa: The Great Law of Peace of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). This was a foundational constitution that guided the political and social structure of the Six Nations, promoting peace, unity, and shared governance among the tribes.  6. Travois: A type of sled or transport device used by Indigenous Plains cultures, typically made of two long poles and a frame, attached to dogs or horses. It was used to carry heavy loads and facilitate nomadic lifestyles. 7. Pit Houses: Semi-subterranean structures used by many Indigenous groups, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and Subarctic regions. They were built by digging into the ground and constructing a wooden frame, creating insulation and warmth in colder climates. The Five W’s of Key Theories and Cultures: 1. Coastal Migration Theory: o Who: Early Indigenous peoples o What: Theory suggesting that humans migrated to the Americas via coastal routes, following marine resources. o Where: Along the Pacific coast of North and South America. o When: Likely around 15,000–20,000 years ago. o Why: To pursue food and resources, supporting early settlement patterns along coastlines. 2. Bering Strait Theory: o Who: Ancestors of Native Americans. o What: Theory that humans crossed from Asia to North America through the Bering Strait land bridge. o Where: Beringia (Bering Strait region). o When: Around 20,000–15,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age. o Why: A migration driven by climate changes and the need for new resources. 3. Clovis First Hypothesis: o Who: Early human groups. o What: The theory that the first human presence in the Americas was marked by the Clovis culture, known for distinctive fluted projectile points. o Where: Primarily in North America. o When: Around 13,000 years ago. o Why: The hypothesis is based on archaeological findings that suggested Clovis sites were the oldest in North America. 4. Six Nations Confederacy: o Who: The Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora nations. o What: A political and cultural alliance promoting peace and shared governance.  o Where: The Northeastern region of North America, mainly present-day New York State. o When: Formed around the 12th century. o Why: To unify the tribes and maintain peace through collective decision-making and mutual defense. 5. Arctic Cultures: o Who: Inuit, Aleut, and other Indigenous groups of the Arctic. o What: Cultures adapted to harsh, cold environments, known for fishing, hunting, and resourceful survival strategies. o Where: The Arctic region, including parts of Canada, Alaska, Greenland, and Siberia. o When: Dates back thousands of years. o Why: Survival in extreme environments required unique social structures and adaptations. 6. Subarctic Cultures: o Who: Indigenous groups such as the Cree, Dene, and Innu. o What: Cultures known for their semi-nomadic lifestyle, hunting, and fishing in boreal forests and tundra. o Where: The Subarctic region of Canada and parts of Alaska. o When: Pre-contact period, evolving over millennia. o Why: Adaptation to seasonal movements and resources like caribou and fish. 7. Northwest Coast Cultures: o Who: Groups like the Coast Salish, Haida, Nuu-chah-nulth, and Tlingit. o What: Complex societies with an economy based on fishing, particularly salmon, and rich artistic traditions. o Where: The Pacific Northwest, including British Columbia and parts of Alaska. o When: Dates back thousands of years. o Why: Access to abundant natural resources and a focus on trade, social status, and ceremonial life. 8. Eastern Woodlands Cultures: o Who: Groups such as the Iroquois, Algonquin, and the Powhatan Confederacy. o What: Societies known for farming (the "Three Sisters": corn, beans, and squash), hunting, and living in longhouses or wigwams. o Where: The forests of the Northeast and Midwest of North America.  o When: Since pre-contact times, including the Woodland period. o Why: Rich natural environment led to a reliance on both agriculture and hunting for sustenance. 9. Plains Culture: o Who: Indigenous groups like the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Comanche. o What: Cultures famous for their nomadic lifestyle, reliance on bison hunting, and use of horses after European introduction. o Where: The Great Plains of North America. o When: Especially prominent from the 17th century onward. o Why: Adaptation to the vast plains and the abundance of bison for food, tools, and clothing. 10. Plateau Culture: o Who: Groups like the Nez Perce, Salish, and Cayuse. o What: Cultures characterized by fishing, hunting, and trade, with a strong emphasis on communal life. o Where: The Plateau region of the Pacific Northwest, including parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. o When: Pre-contact period through early European contact. o Why: Environmentally rich with rivers and resources like salmon and game. Concepts Explained: 1. Archaeology of North and South America as a Battleground: The field of archaeology in the Americas has often been a site of contention, with di erent theories competing to explain the peopling of the continent. Disagreements have emerged over the timing of human arrival, the routes taken, and the evidence used to support theories. This reflects larger struggles over historical narratives and Indigenous perspectives. 2. Impact of Fire Impression: The use of fire by Indigenous peoples, known as "fire-stick farming," had profound e ects on ecosystems. Controlled burns were used to manage landscapes, promote the growth of useful plants, and prevent large wildfires. This practice influenced biodiversity, ecosystem health, and resource availability. 3. Goals of Indigenous Burning: Indigenous burning aimed to manage natural landscapes, enhance the growth of plants used for food and medicine, support animal habitats, and maintain cultural practices tied to the land. It also helped with hunting and improved soil fertility, making areas more suitable for human habitation and sustainable resource use. Unit 3: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Potlatch: A ceremonial feast practiced by Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest, such as the Coast Salish, Haida, and Kwakwaka’wakw. It involved feasting, dancing, and the distribution of gifts to reinforce social status, maintain relationships, and a irm leadership. The potlatch was an important cultural tradition reflecting wealth, generosity, and communal ties. 2. Great Law of Peace: The constitution of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy), establishing a democratic system of governance, mutual cooperation, and peace among the Six Nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora). It emphasized respect, collective decision-making, and unity, serving as a model for later democratic structures. 3. Many Lodges Gathering: Refers to the gathering of di erent Indigenous groups in a council or gathering for ceremonial, social, or political purposes. It could refer to events like the traditional council meetings of the Haudenosaunee or gatherings to discuss alliances and trade. 4. Thule Period: An archaeological period (around 1000–1600 CE) in the Arctic, marking the time of the Thule culture. It was characterized by the migration of the Thule people from Siberia into the Arctic regions of North America, where they developed advanced tools and a subsistence economy based on marine mammals and hunting. 5. People of the Dawn: A term used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands and other early cultures in North America. These groups were known for their deep cultural and spiritual connections to the land and a communal lifestyle. 6. Longhouses: Traditional dwelling structures used by the Haudenosaunee and other Iroquoian- speaking peoples. Longhouses were made of wood and bark, accommodating extended families and reflecting the communal lifestyle and social organization of the societies. 7. Sacred Pipe: A sacred object in many Indigenous cultures, particularly among the Plains peoples. It was used in ceremonies, signifying prayers, peace, and connection with the spiritual world. The smoke was believed to carry prayers to the Creator and facilitate communication with the divine. 8. Plank Houses: Large, rectangular buildings constructed from cedar planks by Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest, such as the Haida and Tlingit. These structures were used for communal living, feasts, and storage, and they symbolized the importance of the sea and forest resources to these communities. 9. Tunit: The Indigenous people of the Arctic region, related to the Inuit but with their own distinct culture and history. The Tunit lived in the eastern Arctic, primarily in what is now Greenland and the northeastern parts of Canada.  10. The Columbian Exchange: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) following the voyages of Christopher Columbus. It had profound and lasting e ects on both sides, including significant disruptions to Indigenous societies and ecosystems. 11. Quinine: A medicine derived from the bark of the cinchona tree, used by Indigenous South Americans long before European contact to treat malaria. It became highly significant during European colonization as a treatment for the disease, aiding in the expansion of European empires in tropical regions. 12. Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer whose voyages, beginning in 1492, are often credited with opening the Americas to European colonization. His arrival marked the beginning of widespread contact between Europeans and Indigenous peoples, resulting in transformative and often catastrophic consequences for Indigenous communities. The Five W’s of Key Contacts and Concepts: 1. Mi'kmaq Contact: o Who: The Mi'kmaq people and early European explorers (e.g., French, English). o What: Initial contact involved trade, alliances, and later conflict over land and resources. o Where: The Atlantic Coast of present-day Canada, especially Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. o When: Began in the early 16th century. o Why: Driven by European interests in fishing and trade, and the Mi'kmaq's desire for trade goods and allies. 2. Haudenosaunee Contact: o Who: The Haudenosaunee (Six Nations) and European settlers. o What: Engagements included alliances, trade partnerships, and later disputes over land and sovereignty. o Where: Present-day New York State and the northeastern United States. o When: Contact with Europeans began in the early 1600s. o Why: Europeans sought fur and resources, while the Haudenosaunee maintained strategic alliances to strengthen their position. 3. Niitsitapi Contact: o Who: The Niitsitapi (Blackfoot Confederacy) and European explorers/traders. o What: Initial contact led to trade of goods like firearms and beads, along with cultural exchange.  o Where: The Great Plains region, now Alberta, Canada, and parts of Montana. o When: Contact began in the late 17th century. o Why: Europeans were expanding westward seeking fur and trade routes, while the Niitsitapi wanted goods to bolster their lifestyle. 4. Kwakwa ka'wakw Contact: o Who: The Kwakwaka’wakw and European fur traders/missionaries. o What: Contact was marked by trade, cultural exchange, and later the influence of missionary work. o Where: The coastal regions of British Columbia, Canada. o When: Began in the late 18th century. o Why: Driven by European trade interests and the Kwakwaka’wakw’s strategic location for trading. 5. Inuit Contact: o Who: The Inuit and European explorers, such as Norse and later, British and French. o What: Early interactions included trade and conflicts over resources and territory. o Where: Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, and Alaska. o When: Norse contact around 1000 CE; more significant European contact began in the 16th century. o Why: Europeans sought to establish trade networks and resources, while Inuit engaged in interactions based on subsistence and survival. 6. Tobacco: o Who: Indigenous peoples of North and South America and European colonizers. o What: Tobacco was used ceremonially, spiritually, and medicinally by Indigenous cultures before its widespread use as a commercial commodity. o Where: Indigenous cultures across the Americas. o When: Tobacco use dates back thousands of years. o Why: Central to rituals, social gatherings, and trade, becoming an economic asset in colonial economies. 7. Forced and Voluntary Migrations to the Americas: o Who: Indigenous peoples, European settlers, and African slaves. o What: The movement of peoples for trade, colonization, slavery, and survival.  o Where: Across the Atlantic to the Americas, involving migration routes from Asia (Beringia) and Africa. o When: Began around 15,000–20,000 years ago for Indigenous migrations; European colonization started in the late 15th century; the Atlantic slave trade intensified from the 16th century. o Why: Driven by survival, economic opportunity, conquest, and forced enslavement. Concepts Explained: 1. The Three Parts of the Spark of Life in Living Things: In many Indigenous teachings, the spark of life is believed to consist of the spirit, soul, and body. These are seen as essential components that animate life, connecting the individual to the Earth and the Creator. 2. Significance of Oolican Oil: Oolican (a type of small fish found in the Pacific Northwest) oil was a crucial resource for Indigenous peoples of the region. It was used as a food source, for trade, and for ceremonial purposes. Rich in nutrients and highly valued, it played a vital role in diet and cultural traditions. 3. Food Introduced to Other Continents After Contact: The Columbian Exchange facilitated the transfer of crops such as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, and beans to Europe, Africa, and Asia. These foods transformed diets worldwide and had significant economic and social impacts. 4. Diseases Introduced to Turtle Island During Contact: European contact brought devastating diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, and whooping cough to Indigenous populations. These diseases led to catastrophic mortality rates, decimating Indigenous communities and severely disrupting their cultures and societies. Unit 4: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. North West Company (NWC): A major fur trading company formed in 1783 in Montreal by a group of fur traders who wanted to compete with the Hudson's Bay Company. The NWC was based on a network of trading posts across the interior of Canada and had strong alliances with Indigenous communities. It played a significant role in shaping Indigenous-European relationships, trade practices, and land use in the fur trade era. 2. Hudson's Bay Company (HBC): Established in 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company is one of the oldest and most influential trading companies in Canada. It controlled fur trading posts along Hudson Bay and had a monopoly over the fur trade in its territory. The HBC's trade relationships with Indigenous groups greatly impacted their economies and social structures. Its practices and rivalries with the NWC contributed to the eventual shift in trade dynamics and interactions between Indigenous people and Europeans. 3. Mackenzie Inuit: The Mackenzie Inuit were the Inuit people who lived in the region surrounding the Mackenzie River in the Northwest Territories. They were heavily involved in the fur trade, acting as suppliers and traders with European companies. The  Mackenzie Inuit adapted their traditional hunting practices and trading strategies to engage with the fur trade, gaining access to European goods and creating interdependent relationships with European traders. 4. Wattap: In the context of the fur trade, wattap refers to the traditional canoe used by Indigenous groups, such as the Cree, Ojibwa, and others, for transporting goods and traveling long distances through waterways. These canoes were essential for the fur trade as they enabled the transportation of furs, trade goods, and people, facilitating economic and cultural exchanges between Indigenous and European traders. The Five W’s of Selected Topics: 1. George Bonga: o Who: George Bonga was a prominent Métis fur trader and interpreter. o What: He worked as a guide, interpreter, and trader for the North West Company, helping facilitate relations between European traders and Indigenous communities. o Where: The fur trading regions of the Great Lakes and the Northwest Territories of Canada. o When: Late 18th and early 19th centuries. o Why: Bonga played a crucial role in bridging the gap between Indigenous groups and European fur trading companies, aiding communication and trade. 2. Inuit Fur Trade: o Who: Inuit communities and European traders (especially the Hudson's Bay Company). o What: A significant part of the economic and cultural exchange between the Inuit and Europeans, where the Inuit traded furs and other resources for European goods such as tools, weapons, and clothing. o Where: Primarily in the Arctic regions of Canada and along the northern coast. o When: The trade began in the 17th century and expanded over the 18th and 19th centuries. o Why: The fur trade provided the Inuit with valuable resources that enhanced their survival and adapted their culture to include new technologies. It also fostered new social and economic relationships between Indigenous and European communities. 3. The Bombardier Channel Site: o Who: Indigenous people who inhabited the area, with evidence of trade relationships with European explorers and traders. o What: An archaeological site in northern Quebec, providing evidence of Indigenous presence and trading activities.  o Where: The site is located in the northeastern part of Quebec, near the Labrador Sea. o When: The site dates back to the time of the fur trade, particularly from the late 17th century to early 19th century. o Why: The Bombardier Channel Site is significant for understanding how Indigenous people participated in and adapted to the fur trade economy, and how their interactions with Europeans influenced cultural and social changes. 4. Disappearance of the Stadacona: o Who: The Stadacona were an Indigenous Iroquoian-speaking people, the ancestors of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. o What: The disappearance refers to the decline and eventual disappearance of the Stadacona, an early group near present-day Quebec City. o Where: The area surrounding Quebec City and the St. Lawrence River. o When: The decline began in the early 16th century, prior to significant European colonization, and continued throughout the 17th century. o Why: The Stadacona were heavily impacted by European diseases, warfare, and the pressure of trade alliances that led to disruptions in their social and economic structures. These factors led to their absorption into other Indigenous groups or disappearance as a distinct community. Concepts Explained: 1. E ects of the Fur Trade: The fur trade had profound and multifaceted e ects on Indigenous communities. It introduced new goods and technologies that altered traditional ways of life, such as firearms, metal tools, and clothing. It also led to significant changes in social structures and power dynamics, as alliances and rivalries developed among Indigenous groups. The fur trade also contributed to the spread of diseases and displacement from traditional territories. While it brought economic benefits and strengthened some communities, it also created dependencies and exacerbated conflicts. 2. Di ering Approaches to Intermarrying (NWC & HBC): The North West Company (NWC) and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) had di erent approaches to intermarrying with Indigenous communities. The NWC often embraced intermarriage as a strategic means to secure alliances and integrate into Indigenous societies, facilitating the fur trade through personal and familial relationships. This approach led to a greater Métis population and more entrenched cultural exchanges. The HBC, on the other hand, was more conservative in promoting intermarriage and was slower to engage with Indigenous groups in such a manner. This resulted in di erent social and economic networks between the two companies and their respective Indigenous allies. 3. Contributions of Indigenous Women from the Fur Trade to Rural Laborer: Indigenous women played a pivotal role during the fur trade, contributing as laborers, guides, and mediators. Many Indigenous women married European traders, fostering relationships that facilitated trade and cultural exchange. These women also contributed to the  economy by processing furs, crafting goods, and managing households. The Métis, in particular, became a distinct cultural group with significant contributions from Indigenous women, who were integral in shaping social and economic systems in rural areas and contributing to the expansion of trade networks. 4. Hierarchies of Meat and Fish: Within Indigenous cultures and fur trade societies, the value and hierarchy of meat and fish varied. High-value foods like salmon and caribou were seen as essential for survival and were often the focus of trade and social gatherings. Certain meats and fish were considered more prestigious, depending on the region and Indigenous group. For example, in the Pacific Northwest, salmon was considered a sacred and highly valuable resource, while in the Arctic, seal and whale were paramount. These hierarchies reflected not just nutritional value but also cultural and social significance, influencing trade practices and dietary preferences. Unit 5: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Beaver War Thesis: The Beaver War Thesis suggests that the mid-17th century conflicts in the northeastern part of North America were driven by the competition over the beaver fur trade. The Iroquois Confederacy engaged in a series of wars against other Indigenous groups (including the Huron, Erie, and others) to control the fur trade, securing access to European markets and trade networks. This conflict drastically reshaped Indigenous alliances and territorial control, highlighting the economic importance of the fur trade and how it influenced intertribal warfare. 2. Pemoussa: Pemoussa refers to a specific type of war party or warrior in the context of Indigenous warfare, particularly among Algonquin-speaking tribes. It signifies a group formed for raiding or war expeditions, often in the context of intertribal conflicts or defense against colonial forces. These war parties played an essential role in the defense of territory and the political and social organization of Indigenous communities. The Five W’s of Selected Topics: 1. Fox Wars: o Who: The Fox people (Meskwaki) against the French and their allied Indigenous groups, notably the Illinois and other tribes. o What: A series of conflicts that occurred between 1712-1733, initiated by the French and their allies against the Fox people due to their resistance to French control of trade and territory. o Where: Primarily in the region around present-day Wisconsin and Illinois. o When: 1712-1733. o Why: The wars were sparked by the Fox’s refusal to submit to French trade and political control and their e orts to defend their autonomy and territory. The Fox Wars were a significant demonstration of Indigenous resistance against European colonization and its impact on Native sovereignty. 2. Iroquois War:  o Who: The Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) against various Indigenous tribes and colonial powers (mainly French and their allies). o What: A series of wars and conflicts throughout the 17th century as the Iroquois expanded their territory and control over the fur trade. o Where: Primarily in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. o When: 1609-1701. o Why: The Iroquois engaged in warfare to secure dominance over the fur trade and expand their power and influence among Indigenous nations. Their military campaigns were also motivated by competition with European powers like the French. 3. Mi'kmaq War: o Who: The Mi'kmaq people against the British colonizers and their allies. o What: A series of conflicts throughout the 17th century, marked by Mi'kmaq resistance to British encroachment and settlement. o Where: Present-day Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and other parts of the Maritime provinces. o When: 1600s-1700s. o Why: The Mi'kmaq fought to defend their land, way of life, and sovereignty against British colonization and the expansion of settlements that disrupted their traditional hunting and fishing practices. 4. Denonville Expedition: o Who: French forces, led by Governor Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville, and their Indigenous allies against the Seneca Nation (part of the Iroquois Confederacy). o What: A military campaign in 1687 aimed at weakening the power of the Iroquois Confederacy. o Where: Primarily in the area of modern-day western New York. o When: 1687. o Why: The French launched the Denonville Expedition to weaken the Iroquois, who were aligned with the English and disrupting French colonial interests in the fur trade. The expedition ended with minimal success and significant destruction, leading to further conflict. 5. French-Indian Alliance System: o Who: French colonialists and various Indigenous tribes, including the Huron, Algonquin, and others.  o What: A strategic alliance between French settlers and Indigenous tribes, built to strengthen both parties' positions against rival colonial powers (primarily the British and their Indigenous allies). o Where: Primarily in areas of Canada and the northeastern United States. o When: Late 17th century to the mid-18th century. o Why: The alliance was based on mutual interests, such as the fur trade and military support against English expansion. The French o ered Indigenous allies gifts, trade goods, and military aid in exchange for protection and support in the ongoing struggle against colonial competition. Concepts Explained: 1. Issues with the Publication The Jesuit Relations: The Jesuit Relations were detailed reports written by Jesuit missionaries in New France (Canada) to their superiors in France, describing their experiences and observations of Indigenous communities and their interactions with Europeans. The issues with these publications include: o Bias and Perspective: Written from a Eurocentric, missionary perspective, these reports often portrayed Indigenous people through the lens of European ideals, emphasizing their "savagery" or "noble" status in a way that justified colonization and conversion e orts. o Cultural Misrepresentation: The Jesuits often misunderstood or misrepresented Indigenous customs, beliefs, and practices, framing them in terms of European religious and cultural norms. o Propaganda: These reports sometimes served to influence public opinion in France about the success of their colonial e orts and the supposed need for religious conversion, rather than being neutral accounts of Indigenous life. 2. French Slavery: French slavery in North America involved the forced labor of Indigenous people and Africans. In New France, Indigenous people were enslaved as laborers and servants, and there was also a system of "indentured servitude" where Indigenous people might be bound to European households for a term. African slaves were less common in French colonies than in English and Spanish territories, but they did exist, particularly in urban centers and some agricultural enterprises. This form of slavery had di erent characteristics than those in other European colonies, reflecting France’s relatively smaller colonial population and unique economic systems. 3. Champlain's Military Alliances: Samuel de Champlain, the founder of Quebec and a significant figure in early French colonial history, formed military alliances with the Algonquin, Huron, and other tribes. These alliances were crucial for: o Fur Trade Security: Champlain used these alliances to secure fur trading routes and maintain a competitive position against the Iroquois, who allied with the English and were a major rival. o Military Support: The alliances provided French forces with critical Indigenous military support during conflicts with rival European powers and Indigenous enemies.  o Cultural Exchange and Influence: Champlain’s alliances allowed for cultural exchange, the integration of Indigenous practices into French colonial life, and the formation of a complex, interconnected colonial society. Unit 6: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Bill C-31: Bill C-31, passed in 1985, was a significant amendment to the Indian Act aimed at addressing gender discrimination in the way Indigenous identity was determined. Prior to this bill, Indigenous women who married non-Indigenous men would lose their status, while men who married non-Indigenous women would not. Bill C-31 sought to restore status to those a ected by this inequality and allowed individuals to reclaim their Indian status. 2. Enfranchisement: Enfranchisement was a policy in Canada that allowed Indigenous people to gain Canadian citizenship and the rights associated with it, such as the right to vote, in exchange for giving up their Indian status and rights associated with it. This policy was aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples into mainstream Canadian society and was seen as a way to weaken Indigenous communities by reducing their land and political power. 3. John Brandt: John Brandt was a significant figure in the context of Indigenous leadership and activism. He was involved in advocating for Indigenous rights and may be recognized in relation to e orts to address injustices faced by First Nations communities. 4. Wabasha: Wabasha refers to a leader of the Dakota people, known for his leadership during periods of conflict and negotiation with European settlers and the U.S. government. His role was particularly notable during the mid-19th century, including the Dakota War of 1862. 5. Niagara Operation: The Niagara Operation was a policy or initiative related to the British and French colonial e orts in the late 18th century, involving military and strategic movements during periods of conflict and alliance-building. This operation a ected Indigenous communities as they were drawn into the colonial struggles for control over territories. The Five W’s of Selected Topics: 1. Tecumseh: o Who: Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief and leader of a confederation of various tribes. o What: Leader and military commander who fought against American expansion and worked to unite Indigenous tribes. o Where: Primarily in the Midwest and the Great Lakes region, including areas in present-day Ohio, Indiana, and Ontario. o When: Late 18th and early 19th centuries (1773-1813).  o Why: Tecumseh sought to protect Indigenous lands and sovereignty from American expansion and worked to form a unified Indigenous resistance to ensure territorial integrity and autonomy. 2. The Royal Proclamation: o Who: Issued by King George III. o What: A decree that established the framework for the management of Indigenous lands and relationships between Indigenous nations and European settlers. o Where: Across the British colonies in North America, including areas in what is now Canada. o When: October 7, 1763. o Why: The Royal Proclamation aimed to stabilize relations after the British victory in the Seven Years’ War by creating boundaries for colonial expansion and recognizing Indigenous land rights, setting a precedent for treaty-making. 3. Gradual Enfranchisement Act: o Who: The Canadian government and Indigenous peoples. o What: A policy that encouraged Indigenous people to voluntarily surrender their status as “Indians” in exchange for citizenship. o Where: Canada, particularly in areas where the Indian Act was applied. o When: Part of the Indian Act revisions starting in 1857. o Why: The act was intended to assimilate Indigenous people into the broader Canadian society and erode their collective rights and identities as Indigenous nations. 4. Manitoba Act: o Who: The Canadian government, led by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, and the Métis people. o What: An act that created the province of Manitoba in 1870 following the Red River Rebellion. o Where: Red River Settlement, present-day Manitoba. o When: 1870. o Why: The act aimed to settle land disputes and address Métis land claims while integrating the area into Canada. It was a compromise meant to calm the tensions following the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel and to secure a loyal population for the new province. 5. Inuit Inclusion and Repeal in the Indian Act: o Who: The Inuit communities and the Canadian government.  o What: The Indian Act originally excluded the Inuit, but they were included as "Indians" under the Act in 1939, allowing them to claim status but also subjecting them to its provisions. o Where: Northern Canada. o When: 1939 inclusion, with some later policy changes impacting their status. o Why: The decision to include Inuit in the Indian Act was part of broader assimilation policies that a ected all Indigenous groups. The repeal and changes to Inuit inclusion reflect shifting approaches to Indigenous governance and identity. Concepts Explained: 1. Implications of the Indian Act Divisions: The Indian Act was designed to create a dichotomy between Indigenous status holders (who received certain rights and benefits) and those who were not recognized as "Indians" under the Act. This division created internal conflicts within Indigenous communities and undermined traditional governance systems, contributing to weakened collective identity and unity. 2. Indian Act Amendments 1876-1950: Between 1876 and 1950, the Indian Act underwent several amendments that reinforced colonial control over Indigenous communities. Key changes included enfranchisement policies that pushed assimilation, alterations in land allocation and reserve management, and restrictions on Indigenous political and cultural practices. These amendments were intended to erode Indigenous autonomy and assimilate Indigenous people into Canadian society. 3. Crown Avoiding Métis Recognition: The Crown historically avoided formally recognizing Métis as a distinct people with rights separate from First Nations and European settlers. This was done to avoid obligations under treaty rights and to limit the land and political claims of the Métis. The government's reluctance to recognize Métis nationhood contributed to their marginalization and complex legal and social issues. 4. Inuit Relocations: Inuit relocations were government policies that moved Inuit communities from their traditional territories to more remote and isolated areas, often under the guise of providing better services or to bolster sovereignty claims in the Arctic. These relocations disrupted Inuit social structures, traditional lifestyles, and led to significant long-term health and social challenges. 5. Impact of The Royal Proclamation on Manitoba Métis Federation Supreme Court Case: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established the principle of recognizing Indigenous land rights through treaties, which became an essential element in the legal arguments of the Manitoba Métis Federation Supreme Court case. This case argued that the Métis' land rights were not properly addressed under the Manitoba Act and that their rights to land should be upheld under treaties that respect Indigenous self- determination and land stewardship. 6. Creation of Reserves: The creation of reserves was a policy implemented by the Canadian government to confine Indigenous people to designated land areas, often of less economic value, and to separate them from mainstream society. This policy aimed to control and assimilate Indigenous communities, limiting their land base, traditional  practices, and economic opportunities, while also allowing for easier administration and assimilation e orts by the state. Unit 7: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Section 31 of the Manitoba Act: This section of the Manitoba Act (1870) outlined the rights and conditions under which land was distributed to the Métis people following the Red River Rebellion. It promised that the Métis would receive land grants to ensure their continued livelihood and maintain their cultural practices, but the actual implementation was often inconsistent, leading to later grievances. 2. Section 32 of the Manitoba Act: This section dealt with the land rights of non-Métis settlers, ensuring that they had equal access to land in Manitoba. It aimed to create a balanced society in the newly formed province but was perceived as a move to placate settlers and limit Métis power and influence in the region. 3. “Logic of Elimination”: This term refers to the underlying rationale behind colonial policies and practices that aimed to systematically diminish Indigenous populations, cultures, and sovereignty. It includes tactics such as land dispossession, forced assimilation, and violence to erase Indigenous identities and ways of life. 4. Métis: The Métis are a distinct Indigenous people in Canada, historically formed through the intermarriage of European fur traders (mainly French, Scottish, and English) and Indigenous women (primarily First Nations). The Métis developed a unique culture, language (Michif), and identity, blending Indigenous and European elements. 5. Powley Test: The Powley Test is a legal framework established by the Supreme Court of Canada to determine Métis identity. It involves criteria such as self-identification as Métis, historical connection to a Métis community, and acceptance by that community. This test was pivotal in a irming Métis rights and recognizing their distinct status under Canadian law. 6. Capote: Capote refers to a type of loose-fitting cloak or cape, often worn in the historical context of Métis and Indigenous dress. It is part of traditional clothing and can signify cultural identity and heritage. 7. Métis Flag: The Métis flag features a white infinity symbol on a blue field, representing the union of European and Indigenous people and the Métis' unique identity. The infinity symbol also signifies the Métis' enduring presence and continuous cultural continuity. The Five W’s of Selected Figures and Events: 1. Annie Bannatyne: o Who: A prominent Métis woman, known for her influence in the Red River community and involvement in the Métis resistance. o What: Bannatyne was a businesswoman and key figure who supported Métis rights and the resistance movement led by Louis Riel. o Where: Red River Settlement, Manitoba.  o When: Active in the mid-19th century. o Why: Bannatyne played an essential role in advocating for Métis land and rights during the tumultuous period of the Red River Rebellion. 2. Dorothy Chartrand: o Who: A Métis woman who contributed to the understanding and promotion of Métis history and culture. o What: Chartrand was known for her dedication to Métis heritage and identity, advocating for the recognition of Métis rights. o Where: Primarily in Manitoba and the Red River region. o When: Active during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. o Why: Her work was important in preserving Métis traditions and promoting awareness of their struggles. 3. Victoria Calihoo: o Who: A Métis woman known for her role in Métis resistance and community building. o What: Calihoo was notable for her involvement in community e orts and advocacy for Métis rights. o Where: Red River Settlement, Manitoba. o When: 19th century. o Why: Her e orts highlighted the contributions of Métis women and the role of women in maintaining cultural and social structures during colonial periods. 4. Louis Riel: o Who: Métis political and spiritual leader, known as the "Father of Manitoba." o What: Riel led the Red River Rebellion and the North-West Rebellion to defend Métis rights and culture, establishing a temporary government and negotiating the terms of the Manitoba Act. o Where: Red River Settlement and later in Saskatchewan. o When: Born 1844, active in 1869-70 and 1885. o Why: Riel's leadership was essential for the Métis' fight for land, rights, and cultural preservation. He is a symbol of Métis identity and resistance against colonial oppression. 5. Victory of Frog Plain (Battle of Seven Oaks): o Who: Métis forces led by Cuthbert Grant, and the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) and settlers. o What: A decisive conflict between Métis forces and HBC-led settlers, where the Métis successfully defended their territory and interests.  o Where: Near present-day Winnipeg, Manitoba. o When: June 19, 1816. o Why: The battle was a culmination of tensions between the Métis, who were integral to the fur trade and local economy, and the HBC, which sought to consolidate control over trade and land. Concepts Explained: 1. Decline of the Bu alo Hunt: The bu alo hunt was a vital part of Métis and Indigenous life, providing food, clothing, and resources. Its decline began in the mid-19th century due to over-hunting by commercial enterprises, environmental changes, and westward expansion by settlers. This decline significantly impacted the Métis economy and way of life, leading to increased dependence on European goods and changing social structures. 2. Forcefield of Settler Colonialism: The forcefield of settler colonialism refers to the complex and dynamic system of interactions that underpin colonial expansion. This system involves the displacement and marginalization of Indigenous peoples, the imposition of colonial governments, and e orts to assimilate Indigenous cultures. For the Métis, this meant struggles for land, recognition, and sovereignty as colonial settlers expanded into their territories. 3. Historians Neglecting Stories of Women: Historians often focused on male figures and leaders in Métis and Indigenous histories, neglecting the crucial roles that women played in society, such as in maintaining cultural practices, economic contributions, and resistance e orts. This oversight has led to an incomplete understanding of the Métis community and its history. 4. Roles of Women at Fur Trade Forts: Women at fur trade forts had significant roles, including managing households, supporting the fur trade economy, and acting as cultural intermediaries between Indigenous and European communities. Métis women, in particular, were integral in shaping the fur trade through their knowledge, skills, and relationships, which were crucial to the success of trading posts. 5. Why Saying Métis Are Mixed Is Inaccurate: The statement that Métis are "mixed" oversimplifies and misrepresents Métis identity. While Métis have ancestral roots in both Indigenous and European backgrounds, they are recognized as a distinct people with unique cultural, social, and political traditions. Referring to them as "mixed" undermines their sovereignty and the historical and cultural significance of their identity. Unit 8: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Treaty Right: A treaty right refers to the specific rights and entitlements granted to Indigenous nations and communities through formal agreements with colonial or federal governments. These rights often include land, hunting and fishing privileges, and other benefits that were negotiated to ensure the survival and well-being of Indigenous communities while allowing for the settlement of European settlers.  2. Treaty Adhesion: Treaty adhesion is when an Indigenous group or nation joins an existing treaty after it has already been negotiated and signed by other groups. This process allows for additional groups to become part of a treaty and be recognized under its terms, though it can sometimes reflect unequal power dynamics and coercion. 3. Two-row Wampum: The Two-row Wampum is a symbolic treaty and an important agreement between the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) and Dutch settlers in the 17th century. Represented by a wampum belt, it signifies that the two nations would live side by side in mutual respect without interfering in each other’s ways of life—symbolizing coexistence and non-interference. 4. Kiciwamanawak: This term means "the great ones" or "the elders" in some Indigenous languages, signifying the elders' wisdom, leadership, and authority within Indigenous communities. They are essential in passing down knowledge, maintaining traditions, and interpreting treaty rights. 5. Bimaadiziwin: A term from Anishinaabe culture that means "the good life" or "living well." It encompasses the concept of balance, well-being, and living in harmony with the natural world, embodying values central to Indigenous worldviews. 6. Gdoo-naaganina: An Anishinaabe term that refers to “our way of life” or “how we live.” It represents the concept of community-based living and stewardship of the land, emphasizing the interconnectedness of people and the environment. 7. British North America Act: Passed in 1867, this act, known later as the Constitution Act, 1867, marked the creation of the Dominion of Canada. It established the framework for government and divided powers between federal and provincial authorities. Its provisions regarding Indigenous peoples and lands have had lasting impacts on how treaties were managed and the rights of Indigenous communities were recognized—or neglected. 8. Davin Report: The Davin Report (1879) was an inquiry into the system of Indian residential schools, authored by Nicholas Flood Davin. It recommended the establishment of these schools as a way to assimilate Indigenous children into European culture, leading to the widespread adoption of residential schools across Canada. 9. Treaty 1: Treaty 1 was the first of the Numbered Treaties signed between Indigenous nations and the Crown, concluded in 1871. It involved the Ojibwa and Swampy Cree peoples of what is now Manitoba, covering land cession in exchange for annual payments, goods, and the promise of reserve lands. The Five W’s for Key Treaties and Events: 1. Pre-Confederation Treaties: o Who: Indigenous nations and the British Crown. o What: Agreements made before 1867, securing land rights and other provisions in exchange for European settlement and economic benefits. o Where: Various regions of what is now Canada, including the Atlantic provinces and parts of Quebec.  o When: 17th and 18th centuries. o Why: These treaties were aimed at securing land for settlers and establishing peaceful relationships while trying to co-opt Indigenous people into the colonial economic system. 2. The Early British Land Treaties: o Who: British colonial o icials and Indigenous nations. o What: Treaties that were often negotiated with the goal of acquiring land for settlement and trade. o Where: Primarily in areas that would become parts of modern-day Ontario, Quebec, and the Atlantic provinces. o When: Late 17th century to early 19th century. o Why: The British needed land to expand settlements and ensure economic growth through agriculture and the fur trade. 3. The Post-Confederation Land Treaties: o Who: Indigenous nations and the Canadian federal government. o What: A series of treaties signed between 1871 and 1921, known as the Numbered Treaties. o Where: Across Canada, from Treaty 1 in Manitoba to Treaty 11 in the Northwest Territories. o When: 1871 to 1921. o Why: These treaties were aimed at acquiring land for the Canadian state and enabling the growth of European settlement and economic expansion, often at the expense of Indigenous land rights. 4. War of 1812: o Who: British forces, Indigenous allies, and American forces. o What: A military conflict between the United States and the British Empire, with Indigenous nations heavily involved as allies of the British. o Where: Primarily in the Great Lakes region, the Ohio Valley, and the northeastern United States. o When: 1812-1815. o Why: The war was rooted in territorial disputes, trade restrictions, and British support for Indigenous resistance against American expansion. Indigenous groups sought to protect their homelands and maintain sovereignty. 5. Métis Scrip: o Who: Métis people and the Canadian government.  o What: A form of compensation given to the Métis for their land claims, usually in the form of land grants or money. o Where: Primarily in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. o When: Late 19th and early 20th centuries. o Why: The Canadian government used scrip as a way to settle Métis land claims after the Red River Rebellion, but the process was rife with issues such as fraud and mismanagement, leading to a loss of land and resources for many Métis families. Concepts Explained: 1. Numbered Treaties Crown Obligations: These obligations include the duty of the Crown to fulfill the promises made in the Numbered Treaties, such as providing annual payments, goods, reserves, and maintaining certain rights of Indigenous peoples. Failure to uphold these obligations has led to disputes and legal battles, as many Indigenous communities argue that the terms were not honored. 2. Numbered Treaties Status Indian Obligations: Indigenous signatories were expected to cede land to the Crown in return for certain rights and benefits, like land reserves, hunting and fishing rights, and payments. However, many Indigenous groups have claimed that the benefits promised were not fully delivered or were insu icient to sustain their way of life. 3. Corruption in Métis Scrip: The process of issuing Métis scrip was often marked by corruption, where Métis people were coerced, deceived, or misled into accepting scrip that did not reflect the value of their land or rights. This often led to the loss of land and resources, contributing to economic and cultural dislocation for the Métis. 4. Treaty Benefit for Newcomers: Treaties were often structured in a way that prioritized the interests of settlers and the Crown, providing newcomers with the land and resources needed for expansion. While Indigenous communities were promised benefits like reserve lands and payments, many argue that these agreements were manipulated to ensure that settlers and the government benefited more than the Indigenous signatories. Unit 9: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Pass System: The Pass System was a policy used in Canada from the late 19th century until the 1940s, which required Indigenous people to obtain permission from government o icials to leave their reserve. This system restricted their freedom of movement, reinforced colonial control, and was part of broader e orts to assimilate Indigenous communities by controlling their lives and mobility. 2. Chief Shingwauk: Chief Shingwauk was an influential Anishinaabe leader who advocated for Indigenous education and self-determination. He was a prominent figure in the 19th century and known for supporting education that respected Indigenous traditions and beliefs, contrary to the assimilation-focused policies of the Canadian government.  3. Recollets: The Recollets were a Catholic religious order that arrived in Canada in the early 17th century as missionaries to the Indigenous peoples. They were among the first European groups to establish missions and contributed to the early interactions between Indigenous communities and European settlers. 4. Thomas Moore: Thomas Moore was an influential figure in the history of Canadian residential schools as a member of the Indian A airs department who played a significant role in shaping policies around these schools. His involvement emphasized the government’s intent to assimilate Indigenous children through education. 5. Duncan Campbell Scott: Duncan Campbell Scott was a Canadian poet, civil servant, and key architect of the Indian Residential School system. He is infamous for his role in implementing and expanding the residential school system and for his belief that assimilation of Indigenous peoples was necessary. He once described his goal as "to get rid of the Indian problem" through assimilation. 6. "A National Crime": This term is associated with the 2015 report by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada, which characterized the residential school system as a form of cultural genocide and a "national crime" against Indigenous peoples. It acknowledges the intentional and harmful policies that sought to destroy Indigenous culture, language, and identity. 7. Sixties Scoop: The Sixties Scoop refers to a period from the late 1950s to the 1980s when large numbers of Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and placed into foster care or adopted, often without consideration for cultural or familial ties. This practice was aimed at further assimilating Indigenous people and resulted in a loss of cultural identity and trauma for many. The Five W’s for Key Topics: 1. Residential Schools: o Who: Indigenous children, government o icials, and religious institutions (primarily Catholic and Protestant churches). o What: A system of boarding schools operated by religious and government bodies designed to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. o Where: Across Canada, primarily in remote areas, often on reserves or adjacent to Indigenous communities. o When: From the mid-19th century until the late 20th century (1831-1996, with the last school closing in 1996). o Why: The main goal was to assimilate Indigenous children, erase Indigenous culture and language, and integrate them into Canadian society according to colonial ideals. 2. Residential School Funding: o Who: Government of Canada, religious institutions, and Indigenous communities.  o What: Funding provided by the federal government to operate residential schools, often inadequate and focusing on the goal of assimilation. o Where: Funded schools across Canada. o When: The funding was provided from the mid-19th century until the schools' closure in 1996. o Why: The funding was aimed at supporting the assimilation agenda, often prioritizing administrative costs over the welfare of students, leading to substandard conditions and abuse. 3. Harper Apology: o Who: Prime Minister Stephen Harper and the Government of Canada. o What: An o icial apology delivered in 2008 acknowledging the harms caused by the residential school system and the impact on Indigenous peoples. o Where: Ottawa, Canada, as part of a public apology in the House of Commons. o When: June 11, 2008. o Why: The apology was part of e orts to acknowledge past wrongs, promote reconciliation, and address the deep-seated trauma resulting from the residential school system. Concepts Explained: 1. Debate on Parental Visits and Access to Their Children: This concept refers to the restrictions and policies around parental involvement in the lives of children enrolled in residential schools. Parents were often denied access or heavily restricted in their ability to visit their children, contributing to the disconnection and erasure of family bonds and cultural transmission. 2. Connections between the Gradual Civilization Act, Indian Act, and Residential Schools: The Gradual Civilization Act (1857) was a policy aimed at assimilating Indigenous people into Canadian society by encouraging them to adopt European ways of living and citizenship. This Act laid the groundwork for policies like the Indian Act (1876), which further entrenched government control over Indigenous lives and reinforced assimilation practices. Residential schools were an extension of these policies, serving as the primary method of forcing assimilation by removing children from their families and culture. 3. Dinjii Zhuh Concept of Strength: In Dinjii Zhuh (Gwich'in) culture, strength is deeply connected to resilience, community, and maintaining one’s identity and traditions despite challenges. This concept emphasizes not only individual fortitude but also the importance of cultural and familial support systems in surviving adversity. 4. Métis and Inuit Attendance at Residential Schools: Both Métis and Inuit communities were heavily a ected by the residential school system, although their experiences varied. The Métis faced forced assimilation as their distinct cultural identity was targeted for eradication. The Inuit, in particular, were subjected to residential schools in  the North, with additional challenges tied to their geographical isolation and cultural di erences. 5. Assimilative Intent (Residential Schools & Sixties Scoop): The residential school system and the Sixties Scoop were both rooted in an assimilative intent aimed at eradicating Indigenous cultures and integrating Indigenous people into Western society. These policies were a deliberate attempt to disconnect Indigenous people from their traditions, languages, and identities to weaken their societal cohesion and ensure their integration into the colonial state. The long-term impact has been profound, contributing to intergenerational trauma and a loss of cultural continuity. Unit 10: Key Terms Explained Through an Indigenous Studies Lens: 1. Tommy Prince: Tommy Prince was one of the most decorated Indigenous war veterans in Canadian history. A member of the Anishinaabe people, he served in World War II and the Korean War. Known for his bravery and tactical skill, he received numerous medals, including the Military Medal for his service in WWII. He exemplified the contributions of Indigenous soldiers, whose service was often overlooked or underappreciated by the broader Canadian society. 2. Indigenous Veterans Day: Indigenous Veterans Day is a day set aside to honor and recognize the contributions and sacrifices of Indigenous veterans who served in wars and military conflicts. Celebrated on November 8th, it serves to highlight the unique history and experiences of Indigenous people who fought for Canada, often facing discrimination and exclusion despite their service. 3. Charlotte Edith Monture: Charlotte Edith Monture was the first Indigenous woman in Canada to enlist in the Canadian Armed Forces during World War I. She served as a nurse and faced the dual discrimination of being both a woman and Indigenous, but she persisted and became an iconic figure representing Indigenous women's contributions during wartime. 4. Mary Greyeyes: Mary Greyeyes was a First Nations woman from the Cree community who contributed to the Canadian war e ort. She is remembered for her service and dedication during WWII. As an Indigenous woman, her participation emphasized the broader role that Indigenous people played in supporting their country during times of war. 5. Forgotten Soldiers: This term refers to Indigenous soldiers and veterans whose contributions and sacrifices during wars, especially WWI and WWII, were largely ignored or undervalued by the government and mainstream society. Despite serving with distinction, these soldiers faced systemic discrimination and were often left out of post- war benefits and recognition. 6. Bill C-51: Bill C-51 is a Canadian law passed in 2015, known as the Anti-terrorism Act, 2015. It expanded the powers of Canadian security agencies, allowing them to monitor and disrupt suspected threats more aggressively. The bill was controversial due to its potential to infringe on civil liberties and disproportionately a ect Indigenous activists and communities advocating for land rights and environmental protection.  7. Forgotten People: This term generally refers to Indigenous communities and groups whose histories, struggles, and contributions have been overlooked or dismissed by mainstream Canadian society and historical narratives. In the context of military service, it refers to the Indigenous soldiers whose participation in wars and their impact on the country were forgotten or not acknowledged. 8. Natural Resources Transfer Agreement: The Natural Resources Transfer Agreement (NRTA) was a series of agreements between the federal government and provinces in the 1930s and 1940s. The agreements transferred control of natural resources from the federal government to provincial governments. For Indigenous communities, these agreements impacted their rights to manage and benefit from resources on their lands, leading to tensions over land and resource rights. 9. Lt. Frederick O. Loft: Lieutenant Frederick O. Loft was an influential Mohawk leader and the founder of the League of Indians of Canada, established in 1919. The league was the first national organization advocating for the rights and well-being of Indigenous peoples in Canada, pushing for better conditions, political representation, and a stronger voice for Indigenous communities. The Five W’s for Key Topics: 1. WW1 Indigenous Involvement: o Who: Indigenous people, Canadian government, and military. o What: Involvement of Indigenous men and women who served in the Canadian military, often without full recognition of their status as citizens or soldiers. o Where: Overseas in European battlefields, training camps, and in Canadian military units. o When: 1914-1918, during World War I. o Why: Indigenous people served out of loyalty, a sense of duty, and to support their communities and Canada, despite facing discrimination and limited rights at home. 2. WW2 Indigenous Involvement: o Who: Indigenous men and women, military units, Canadian government. o What: Indigenous people served in various capacities, including combat roles, as medics, and in support services. They were involved in significant battles and campaigns. o Where: Europe, the Pacific, and Canadian military bases. o When: 1939-1945, during World War II. o Why: Many Indigenous people enlisted to defend Canada, gain social and economic benefits, and prove their loyalty and worth despite ongoing discrimination. 3. Little Ice Age:  o Who: Indigenous communities, European settlers. o What: A period of cooler climate that lasted from approximately 1300 to 1850. o Where: Global, with significant e ects in the Northern Hemisphere. o When: 1300-1850. o Why: The cooling temperatures a ected agricultural practices, food supply, and population dynamics. Indigenous communities adapted their practices and lifestyles to survive, while European settlers struggled to establish stable colonies. 4. Northwest Resistance: o Who: Métis people, Indigenous allies, Canadian government, military. o What: A series of conflicts between the Métis people and the Canadian government, primarily over land rights, recognition, and the rights of Indigenous people in the west. o Where: Primarily in Saskatchewan and the surrounding areas. o When: 1885. o Why: The resistance was fueled by government policies that disregarded Métis land rights, the encroachment of settlers, and failure to honor promises made in earlier treaties. It culminated in armed conflict led by leaders such as Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont. Concepts Explained: 1. Indian Agents and Enlistment: Indian agents were government-appointed o icials who oversaw Indigenous communities and enforced policies such as the Indian Act. Their role in enlistment often involved coercion or pressure, as Indigenous people were sometimes encouraged or forced to enlist in the military without adequate support or recognition. 2. Issues with Soldier Settlement Act: The Soldier Settlement Act (1917) was intended to provide land and support to returning soldiers after WWI. However, Indigenous veterans were largely excluded from these benefits, or if they were included, faced systemic racism and discrimination that limited their access to fair land distribution and support. 3. Impact of the Amendment to Section 9 of the Citizenship Act: The amendment to Section 9 of the Canadian Citizenship Act, enacted in the 1950s, a ected the status of Indigenous people by redefining their legal status in relation to citizenship. It aimed to assimilate Indigenous people by granting them Canadian citizenship but often led to a loss of their distinct Indigenous identity and rights.