Colonialism and the Iroquois Quiz

Positionality - Why does it matter?

• Articulating positionality involves locating oneself within familial history, understanding knowledge origins, and addressing lived experiences influencing perspectives in life, research, and teaching.
• Positionality considers intersecting identity groups (race, socioeconomic class, ability, religion, gender, and sexual orientation) and their impact on power and privilege experienced.

Oral Stories & Histories

• The concept of "history" is not fixed across cultures.
• Oral traditions of Indigenous nations, like the Hul'qumi'num-speaking Coast Salish peoples, distinguish between true histories (syuth) and fables/moral tales (sxwi'em').

The Power of Oral History

• The Huu-ay-aht story of a 1700 flood and the Delgamuukw v. Supreme Court of British Columbia case highlight the acceptance of oral histories as evidence in court.
• Inuit oral histories were crucial in discovering the Franklin Expedition wrecks (Terror and Erebus).

The Ontological/Epistemological Divide

• Euro-Western frameworks exist abstractly, their articulation in action or behavior bringing them into praxis, creating ontological/practical and theoretical/conceptual divisions.
• In Indigenous frameworks, cosmology is a literal, animate extension of thought, inseparably intertwined with place, making theory and practice inseparable distinct from place.

What is a Creation Story? / What are Foundational Myths?

• A creation story explains the world's origin.
• Foundational myths detail a people's origin, express worldviews, and often relate to larger cosmologies.
• Myths can encompass specific historical events presented with mythical power.

Beringia Land Bridge Theory

• The 1960s and 70s model of migration from Asia to North America via an ice-free corridor east of the Rockies (Tse'K'wa, B.C. and Clovis, New Mexico) was challenged.
• Archaeological and anthropological evidence supports a different model.
• Evidence suggests sufficient resources sustained human populations during southbound migration.
• Bison population analysis shows mixing between northern and southern herds, implying a southern migration route rather than an ice-free corridor.

Some key points from Erlandson et al.

• Sea-faring was common along the Pacific Rim by at least 50,000 years ago, enhanced by kelp forest richness that provided nutrition.
• Lower sea levels facilitated migration and explain the lack of older sites along the coasts, possibly due to subsidence earthquakes/tsunamis.

Before "contact" with Europeans

• Complex agricultural societies developed in Central America and coastal Peru, roughly contemporary with farming breakthroughs in China, the Middle East, and the Nile Valley.
• Indigenous ingenuity is evident in "three-sisters" (corn, beans, and squash) farming.

First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy

• Woodlands (East) - Haudenosaunee Confederacy potentially established by 1142 C.E.; disputes arise over the time of establishment.
• Tuscorora People joined the Confederacy around 1722.
• Iroquoian longhouses reflected tightly-knit communities where decisions were collectively made and coercion was rare.
• Woodland (East) Anishinaabe—three council fires – alliances forged among Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi.
• Far North – Thule/Inuit spread and Hudson Bay Drainage-Plains diplomacy (Cree, Assiniboine, eventually including Saulteaux and Métis)
• Northwest Coast — many nations and languages existing.

What is a treaty?

• A treaty is a formal agreement between groups, defining mutual benefits, responsibilities, and reciprocity.

Indigenous Treaty Making

• Treaty processes are rooted in Indigenous worldviews, languages, knowledge systems, and ethics (justice, peace, respect, reciprocity, and accountability).
• Treaties are understood as relationships, with renewal paramount for maintaining agreements.
• Treaties outline rights and responsibilities of individuals and groups.

Treaty as Relationship - Nishnaabeg Perspective

• Treaty-making examples provided by Leanne Simpson include dealings with fish, hoof, and other Indigenous nations.
• The "Gdoo-naaganinaa" or "Our Dish" treaty with Haudenosaunee.

Grounded Normativity

• Worldview and being in the world (relationships with others) is shaped by contexts, including responsibilities and obligations relating to specific places.

Elder Brother and the Law of the People

• Information about an Nêhiyâw-Pwat (also known as Iron alliance).
• History of alliance between nêhiyâw (Cree) and Nakoda/Assiniboine.
• Mentions of the growing alliance through the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Kinship, Reciprocal Obligations, and Treaty Making

• The Iron Alliance of the nêhiyaw pwât, a kinship and reciprocity-based alliance between Indigenous groups, including Métis and Saulteaux peoples.
• Métis and Indigenous peoples viewed treaty negotiations by the Crown within existing cultural protocols.
• Crown's understanding of the significance of Métis and Indigenous ways was fundamentally different.

"Proto-contact" / Contact / Post-Contact

• Different timelines for contact between Indigenous peoples and Europeans.
• Dorset people interacted with Europeans centuries before contact with Cartier.
• Beothuk and Mi'kmaq peoples encountered Basque whalers and fishers from around 1530.

The Columbian Exchange

• Exchange of diseases, ideas, food crops, and populations between New and Old Worlds.
• This exchange dramatically reshaped global societies; significantly impacting Indigenous populations.

Indigenous Trade Networks

• Emergence of Indigenous transportation networks which informed and continue to inform present-day networks.
• Chinook language emerged as a trade language in what is now British Columbia.

Indigenous trade

• Trade practiced in the pre-Columbian era, and continuing throughout Indigenous societies.
• Trade occurred in quantities that made it worthwhile for Indigenous societies.
• Large-scale production of goods was evident on extensive wooden racks.

Mandan Corn

• Mandan people harvested corn in abundance, trading and storing it.
• Other peoples traded for and stored it also.

Invasive species

• Invasive species such as the brown/Norway rat impacted storage of Mandan corn.

Indigenous/Non-Indigenous Trade

• Northeast: French expeditions from the 1500s; trade and abductions began, but French population remained low until 1720..
• Well-armed Europeans were a significant factor in conflicts.

Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies

• Haudenosaunee Society contrasted with Anishinaabe, examining material conditions and relationships with territory, considering population density in agrarian v. foraging societies.
• St. Lawrence and Wendat provided agricultural surpluses across frontiers through trades.

Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies - Wendat Confederacy

• Five Iroquoian-speaking communities composing the Wendat Confederacy.
• The political and economic practices of the Wendat, particularly their farming economy, organization by clans around longhouses, and palisades reflected their history and their region.
• A population decline occurred between 1550 and 1580, impacting political and economic units.

Rather... Dispersal, not Destruction

• Only Wendake (near Georgian Bay) was completely destroyed; Wendat maintained their home.
• Many sources indicate that Indigenous peoples were dispersed instead of destroyed.

Settler Colonialism

• Deliberate physical occupation of land for the purpose of asserting ownership of resources.
• Invasion is a structure, not just an event; an intentional process leading to displacement and replacement of the original people.
• Colonialism has a specific relationship to territory.

Civilization/Savagery Binary

• Colonial concept of a binary opposition to justify control and marginalization of Indigenous peoples.
• Cultural and ideological justification for colonial enterprise.

Defining Colonialism – 3 general types

• Type 1: Temporary, seasonal resource extraction. (e.g., Basque and Breton fishing and whaling fleets).
• Type 2: Get-rich-quick scheme focused on extraction; plunder and pillage. (e.g., Spanish in Caribbean Basin).
• Type 3: Planter model; established by Spanish colonists on Caribbean islands, relying primarily on forced Indigenous labor.

Wabanaki Resistance

• Confederacy of Algonquian peoples along the Atlantic seaboard; composed of Abenaki, Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot peoples.

The Mourning Wars / The Beaver Wars

• Series of conflicts in the 17th century involving Haudenosaunee and other Indigenous peoples, aligned with the French.
• Concerns included population replacement, access to valuable resources (fur), and expansion of territorial and economic influence.
• Scholars argue for more complex strategies behind the conflicts.

Mourning/Beaver Wars – 17th century

• Strategy of adopting captives within Iroquois cultural traditions.
• Warfare extended across multiple locations, including interactions with numerous other groups, in addition to conflicts over the fur trade itself.

The Great Peace of Montréal – 1701

• 39 Indigenous nations sent delegates to Montreal.
• Indigenous and French negotiators played significant roles in the process.
• The peace was a point of transition and change in the relations among existing Indigenous groups and the French.

The Seven Years' War – a turning point

• Global conflict between European powers; France and England involved Indigenous nations within the Americas.
• Alliances among Indigenous nations and European powers shifted, impacting relations.
• Impact of alignment shifted from alliance to conflict.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763

• Aftermath of the Seven Years' War and addressed shifting territorial claims.
• Intended to define relations with Indigenous peoples, establishing formal Crown-First Nation relationships and treaty-making processes.
• The Proclamation did not have widespread agreement from Indigenous Nations

Treaty of Niagara – 1764

• Large attendance of Indigenous chiefs, representing more than twenty-four nations.
• Covenants were encoded in agreements and acknowledged the shared relationship between Indigenous peoples and newly arrived groups.

Hudson's Bay Company

• Established as a fur trade company; granted rights to fur trade.
• The company's authority extended to governing lands; influenced British colonial ambitions.

North-West Company

• Independent fur trading company without a formal charter.
• Organizational structure relied on personal and familial connections rather than a formal charter.

Fur Trade

• Beaver, muskrat, marten, fox, otter, mink, and buffalo were significant resources.
• Extensive hunting led to depletion of pelts and buffalo.
• Driven by European demand, this trade impacted Indigenous economies, resource availability, and social structures.

Key Terms for Today

• Ethnogenesis - The development of an ethnic identity.
• Peoplehood - Diverse ways to conceptualize peoples, including Indigenous concepts of kinship, relations, and land.
• Nationhood - The social and political project of belonging to a particular group of people.

Takeaways re: Fur Trade in the late 18th century

• Mixing of Indigenous and European families, and changing family and kinship structures;
• Multi-generational families increasingly common.

The Importance of Women in the Fur Trade

• Essential roles of Indigenous women throughout the fur trade.
• Women's work and knowledge were vital for the success of fur trading operations.
• Gendered roles and responsibilities impacted the interactions between Indigenous women and Europeans.

What is Métis Peoplehood?

• Kinship, relatedness, mobility, and geography define Métis identity.
• Kinship forms connections among Métis people and towards others through complex relationships.
• Métis mobility in space and their connections to multiple landscapes.

The Métis Nation; key moments of nationalist expression / assertion

• Red River Core, Colonies
• Battle of Seven Oaks
• The Sayer Trial
• Battle of Grand Coteau
• Red River Resistance
• North-West Resistance
• Contemporary Political Resurgence, L'Union nationale métisse St. Joseph
• Court Recognition
• MMF vs. Canada

The Pemmican Wars (1812-21)

• Selkirk Settlement establishment.
• NWC provision route disruption led to food issues for early settlers, especially Métis.
• The Pemmican Proclamation sparked violence between HBC and NWC as well as Métis.

The Battle of Seven Oaks

• A clash between Métis allies of the NWC and HBC/Selkirk Settlers.

Significance of First Nations Women in the Emergence of the Métis

• Métis and First Nations women established and maintained kinship and cultural linkages.
• Métis women's knowledge and cultural traditions profoundly influenced Métis cultural development.

Indigenous Fur Trade

• Métis were not unique; other Indigenous peoples participated in the fur trade.
• Consideration of different racial characteristics & the intricacies of capitalism.

Nêhiyaw Pwat Terminology

• The self-descriptor used by the Cree to refer to the alliance; encompassing Cree, Assiniboine, Métis, and Saulteaux groups.
• This alliance was a political and military construct formed throughout the 17th, 18th. and 19th centuries.

The Red River Resistance (1869-70)

• Métis contested Canada's unilateral land acquisition and sovereignty.
• Métis formed a provisional government to negotiate.
• Efforts to gain recognition and rights for their region.

The Manitoba Act: Promises Made

• Manitoba Act (1870) granted royal assent.
• Recognized Manitoba as a province.
• Promised specific land allocations (Section 31) to the Métis and initial rights, but significant gaps concerning original Métis rights remained.
• No amnesty for rebel leadership.

The Frog Lake Incident (1885)

• The incident involved the Cree people.
• Issues of treaty rights, government responses, and misunderstandings of Indigenous leadership.

The Indian Act - 1876

• Federal law impacting Indigenous peoples in Canada—defining Aboriginal people within the law.
• This Act regulated daily life, governance, and land, severely limiting Indigenous autonomy.
• Impacts continue to be felt today.

Scrip

• Scrip was a form of land entitlement given to Métis and Indigenous peoples.
• Scrip complicated ownership and land access.
• The process was full of complexities, fraud, and inequities.

Amendments to the Manitoba Act

• Manitoba Act amendments increased and decreased eligibility for scrip and allotments.
• Government survey efforts occurred regarding land and scrip eligibility which led to further conflicts and resentment.

Scrip in Manitoba

• Scrip distribution in Manitoba was significantly challenged by fraud and exploitation.
• Government acted in a discriminatory manner regarding scrip distribution.

Land vs. Money Scrip

• Historical differences and implications between land-based and money-based scrip.
• Patterns of land and money scrip distribution through time.
• Impacts on Indigenous land, property, and rights.

Scrip in the North-West

• Differences and similarities of scrip processes across Manitoba and the NW.
• Promises of compensation for land settlement.

The Trial of Louis Riel

• Charges, defence, and outcome of the trial.
• Socio-political context and background information regarding the trial process.

Road Allowance communities

• Land originally designated for roads.
• Settlements on these "road allowances" occurred with the result of conflicts with settler communities around land access and use.

Métis and Inuit Experiences

• Historically marginalized experiences; education disparities between Indigenous children.
• Growing concerns concerning Canadian provincial and territorial oversight.

After the war - discrimination

• Indigenous contributions were reduced and stereotyped.
• Access to programs like veteran's benefits for Métis and Indigenous soldiers was a significant issue.

The Settlement of Ste. Madeleine – 1900s

• Métis communities established in Manitoba, particularly in relation to land displacement and access.
• The settlement process considered land, rights, and access to resources.

L'Union nationale métisse St. Joseph du Manitoba

• Métis organization focused on rights, language, and culture.
• Founded in 1887.
• Role of the organization in historical advocacy for rights and culture preservation.

Biographies: James Patrick Brady + Malcolm Norris

• History of Métis peoples' activism in the face of land and resource issues and oppression.

Ewing Commission – 1934 – shifting the narrative

• Métis experience of poverty and the issues faced in the settlement of land.
• Criticism of historic and current power imbalances impacting Métis peoples.

AB Métis Settlements Established in 1938

• Alberta government-created settlements to accommodate Métis populations, in response to prior loss of land and resources.
• Issues including suitability of land and the implementation process.

Broader Contexts – late 1920s & 1930s

• Global and Canadian economic contexts contributed to issues, notably the Great Depression.

The Dust Bowl

• Severe drought and environmental conditions impacting farming communities in the prairies, in relation to the broader economic environment.

The Burning of Ste. Madeleine - 1935-1938

• The forced relocation of Métis residents; this act of violence.

Test your knowledge on the Iroquois and their interactions during colonial times. This quiz covers various aspects of Iroquois society, their trading roles, and significant historical events, including the Great Peace of Montréal. Explore the complexities of colonialism and its effects on Indigenous communities.