Ancient Greek Philosophy PDF

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom and/or the search for wisdom, derived from the Greek words "philo" (to love) and "sophia" (wisdom). It is meant for everyone. Whenever we think deeply and consistently about our ideas, concepts, principles, theories, morals, or ways of...

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom and/or the search for wisdom, derived from the Greek words "philo" (to love) and "sophia" (wisdom). It is meant for everyone. Whenever we think deeply and consistently about our ideas, concepts, principles, theories, morals, or ways of living, we are doing philosophy. Every human activity has its ‘philosophy’. Philosophy is basically what philosophers do and there is no method peculiar to it. There are as many definitions of philosophy as there are philosophers willing to formulate them. Be Curious / Doubt / Question / Make Sense (Express Meaningfully) Philosophy ought to appeal to all of us because it comes from our sense of wonder about the universe and our place in it. (Bertrand Russell argues that the value of philosophy lies in its very uncertainty: “The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the co-operation or consent of his deliberate reason. To such a man the world tends to become definite, finite, obvious; common objects rouse no questions, and unfamiliar possibilities are contemptuously rejected. Philosophy, though unable to tell us with certainty what is the true answer to the doubts which it raises, is able to suggest many possibilities which enlarge our thoughts and free them from the tyranny of custom.) Philosophy is concerned with purpose (end), not merely with instruments. (Which means, it is more interested in meaning (the essence) rather than words.) True philosophers don’t tell people what to think but how to think. Taking a balanced, middle way between the extremes of scepticism and dogmatism is essential for fruitful philosophising.  THE CORELATION BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES The core subjects of philosophy: Metaphysics – What is reality? Mind and matter. Language and reference. Epistemology – What is knowledge? How do you know that you know? Ontology – What is existence? What kinds of things exist? Logic – What is a valid argument? The laws of thought. Ethics – What is a good person? Values and facts. Why should you behave yourself? Aesthetics – What is art? The world is understood and explained meaningfully through four axes: SCIENCE / ART / RELIGION / PHILOSOPHY They all are used for explaining the existence and the universe meaningful by progressing in order. Indeed, human beings are not satisfied solely by the fulfillment of their material needs; also their spiritual needs must be fulfilled. Just as every person has a philosophy, so every academic subject has a philosophical basis. There are philosophies of science, religion, economics and so on. Whenever we think critically about the ideas, concepts and theories of any academic subject, we are doing philosophy. Whenever questions arise about abstract and speculative matters, we use philosophy to answer these questions. Also, speculation about scientific theories usually consists in a philosophical examination and criticism of existing ideas and concepts. It introduces new or revised ideas and concepts within a new theoretical framework. ALBRECHT DÜRER – MELENCOLIA (1514) PICASSO – GUERNICA (1937)  WHY DID PHILOSOPHY EMERGE IN ANCIENT GREEK? The great philosophers were all western philosophers because philosophy developed as a distinct subject in ancient Greek culture. Classical Greek philosophy in particular applied reason to the material world in a way that is not found in the speculative systems of India, the mysticism of Taoism, or the gentlemanly precepts of Confucianism. The ancient Greeks believed that reason was an essential feature of human beings It was fashionable among the Greeks to be lovers of truth who were possessed with a passion for knowledge of all kinds. Theory vs. Practice: During the 500s BCE, the early Greeks discovered abstract, objective thinking and exploited it to the full. People recognized the significance of abstract words such as nature, truth, time and justice. They no longer regarded such words as being magical, divine or demonic. Nature, for instance, was no longer to be feared or worshipped but to be understood. The early philosophers engaged in politics, organized engineering schemes, and used their astronomical and geometrical knowledge for practical purposes. Structure of the State: The cities competed with each other and largely avoided war by their treaties, ties, sport, and their shared Greekness. Each state was a living experiment in which they sought the best way to govern and organize their citizens. This also made them open to new ideas and new ways of thinking which they used to improve their cities and increase their reputation among the Greeks. Established Belief System and Multiculturalism: Greek religion was not based on a fixed system of doctrines and was not rigidly enforced by an élite organization of priests. In Greek culture, there was as much emphasis on trade, industry and money-making as on religious observance. This was largely because Greece was not agriculturally rich and it depended on trade and industry for its prosperity. Trade brought them into contact with religions and cultures alien to theirs. Thus, criticism of religion was tolerated up to a point since the Greeks welcomed discussion about religious matters. Wealth and Leisure Time THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE  THE SCHOOL OF MILETUS (THE PROBLEM OF ‘ORIGIN’) The se are the first philosophers in the sense of being those who loved wisdom, truth and knowledge for their own sake. They were called ‘physicists’ because they were concerned with the nature of things. They were the first men to put religious thoughts out of their heads and wonder about what the world was really made of. Instead of thinking of everything in terms of gods, spirits, demons and the like, they thought of the world as being made of matter of some sort. They began to think abstractly and objectively about the world by using concepts to understand the world rather than attributing everything to the divine thoughts and actions outside their control. Their methods were; Ratiocination (Reasoning), Experience (Experiment), Observation. ARCHE: The source or fundamental basis (origin) from which everything comes and to which it returns. The philosophers making reference to Arche were in search of finding a fundamental element as the origin of the universe (and ‘Being’). Thus, they observed and experienced the nature. And they concluded that: ‘In nature, everything is in a state of change and transformation’. The main question: Despite all the changes, what was the fundamental substance that held everything combined or connected? THALES (C.623 - C.545 BCE): Thales was the first man in history who looked at the world in a material and non-religious way. He attempted to explain the ‘nature’ solely by ‘nature’ itself and concluded that material objects must be made of a primary substance or arche and he thought that substance must be water. He observed what was happening in nature and he saw that water is needed to germinate seeds, to give birth, and to keep us alive. Water seemed to him to condense out of the air in the form of rain. It can also be boiled back into air in the form of steam. Solid objects like stones may be melted down into fluid glass or molten metal. Everything can either be condensed into water or rarefied out of water. No ‘being’ can survive without water. Water can exist in three different states. The liquid, solid, and gas. (Three forms of water) This is a cycle which can continue forever. Nowadays, we follow Thales’s way of thinking when we think of things as being ultimately reducible to energy. ANAXIMANDER (C.610 - C.546 BCE): Anaximander was a student and successor to Thales but he disagreed with his mentor as he questioned whether everything could be explained in terms of a material substance like water. There are dry things as well as wet things and they are in opposition to each other. Also, cold things are opposed to warm things. They can’t be both warm and cold at the same time. He therefore concluded that the everchanging dividing line between these opposites was fundamental to nature. He called this dividing line the ‘indefinite’ (apeiron) and called it the primary substance (arke). Apeiron is something that cannot be directly observed, experienced or felt. But it can be thought as a kind of framework that holds all atoms in the universe together. All forms—liquid, solid, or gas—can remain together in order because of this substance. It is infinite in the sense of having no definite boundaries. In the universe, everything exists with its opposite. Therefore, he speculated that the opposites were at war with each other and destroy each other. Because they are always in a strife and this catalizes ‘caos’ (disorder). Thus, they need to neutralize each other to be in balance and there comes ‘cosmos’ (order). Apeiron must remain neutral in this strife between the opposites (opponents); otherwise, balance is disrupted. Everything comes out of the indefinite substance and returns to it eventually. Anaximander thought that the first living creatures originated in moisture and that they were each encased in a prickly bark from which they emerged on dry land. It was obvious to him human beings must have originated from another species because we cannot survive unsupported like other species. Originally, we were nurtured inside fish-like creatures (nekton) and emerged able to look after ourselves. And similarly, he speculated that the universe was not created; it evolved from another formation. He clearly had a vague inkling of what we now call the theory of evolution. ANAXIMENES (C.590 - C.525 BCE): Anaximenes was a student of Anaximander. He agreed with his mentor that the primary substance is one and infinite but he disagreed that it is completely indeterminate. Everything must be reducible to some definite kind of matter. He observed that air is unseen and untouchable, and he concluded it is indefinite enough to be that from which everything is either condensed or rarefied. Air is evenly distributed everywhere until it subjected to heating which turns it into fire. When it is cooled it is condensed first into mist or cloud, then into water, and finally into solid matter such as earth or stones. It seemed to him that hotness and dryness rarefy things, whereas coldness and wetness are condensed. Therefore; for Anaximenes, Air is the fundamental element (arke) that sustains life -not only human life-. The physical diversity in nature (in qualitative terms) is actually based on quantitative differences. The soul is air; fire is rarefied air. If it condenses too much, it becomes water; if it solidifies too much, it becomes earth.  (THE EXPLANATİON OF ‘ORIGIN’) PYTHAGORAS (C.570 - C.500 BCE): The whole science of mathematics originates in Pythagoras’ work and that of his successors. His interest in mathematics may have been stimulated by early visits to Babylonia and Egypt. Numbers were not just the ultimate objects of reality for him they were also the subject of worship and mystical contemplation. He drew attention to the geometrical nature of numbers, hence ‘square numbers’. Thus, according to Pythagoras, the arche is NUMBERS. Because numbers give a concrete form (physicality) to an inconcrete concept. Measurement and ratio organize everything. By advancing Anaximenes’ emphasis on quantity, he states, “Everything can be reduced to mathematics”. Here, the numbers are not used in the sense of ‘digits.’ (For example; the number of family is 3. The number of justice is 4 or 9. The number of marriage is 5 (nuptial number).) There is harmony and beauty in the universe. He emphasized that the balance can happen through the harmony of opposites. (Similar to Anaximander’s philosophy). Music Theory: Pythagoras is generally credited with the theory of the functional significance of numbers in the objective world and in music. In other words, he recognized the theoretical usefulness of numbers and how they are used harmonically in music. Harmony, rhythm, and the strife between opposites are best manifested in music. He used musical tones and frequencies for explaining the connection between astronomy (the sun, moon, earth, and other planets), astrology (zodiac signs) and music. Doctrine of Transmigration of Souls: The principles of Pythagoreanism, including belief in the immortality and reincarnation of the soul and in the liberating power of abstinence and asceticism, influenced the thought of Plato and Aristotle and contributed to the development of mathematics and western rational philosophy. According to this doctrine, a ‘soul’ is immortal and continuously moves from body to body through transmigration. The quality of your previous life, whether good or bad, determines your new form (body) in rebirth. (This is very similar to ‘reincarnation’ in Hinduism and Jainism.) The aim is the liberation of ‘soul’ trapped in the prison of ‘body’. In this sense, Pythagoras is the first philosopher to seperate ‘body’ and ‘soul’ from each other. (Dualism of Soul and Body). In this doctrine, the essence/origin of existence is the ‘soul’. Pythagoras is considered as the father of Materialism, Idealism, and Dualism. He influenced Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus in mathematics; and Plato, Aristotle, and Neo-platonists in philosophy.  (THE DIVINIZATION OF ‘ORIGIN’) HERACLEITUS (C.540 - C.480 BCE): Seeing nothing but change and constant motion around him, Heracleitus concluded that fire must be the underlying substance of which everything is made or destroyed. Fire changes things by upward and downward paths. Fire has a power to transform objects, a force which creates, transforms and also destroys. However, fire can also be destroyed. When fire is condensed it becomes moist, and under compression it turns into water. When water is congealed it is turned into earth. This is the downward path. When earth is liquefied, water emerges, and from that everything else is created by this process of evaporation from the sea. This is the upward path. Everything is in a dynamic state of change in which there is no stability or resting point. Therefore, the fundamental arche in the universe is change itself. (“The only thing that is constant is change”) Panta Rhei: (Everything flows) We are born, we age and we die. This process flows/ happens naturally. The hot becomes cold, the wet becomes dry, the bright becomes dull. All objects are in a state of movement and transformation towards non-existence. They disappear and reappear. Everything has a beginning and an end. This makes the concepts of ‘time’ itself a problematic. “No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river and he's not the same man.” Water constantly flows, so it changes all the time. But on the other hand, we are still in the same river. Heracleitus is here referring to people’s inability to objectify their account of the world (their ‘Word’) and treat it as something distinct from their immediate experience of things around them. It is as if they were sleepwalking through their lives because they cannot comprehend the deeper meaning underlying their lives. If everything changes, then the principle that controls and organizes change in the universe must be an unchanging/stable principle. This principle (arche) is LOGOS. (Logos: order, principle, ratio, reason, word.) He saw the underlying unity between interacting opposites. (Order, universe, logos, arche, nature, God… etc. are all one and the same.) ‘It is a harmony of opposing tensions’. Health is balanced by its opposite which is ill-health. Thus, changes in one direction are balanced by changes in the other direction. For example, health and disease define each other. Good and evil, hot and cold, and other opposites are similarly related. In addition, he noted that a single substance may be perceived in opposing ways, thus, sea water is both harmful (for humans) and beneficial (for fishes). The connection is the interaction between such opposing tendencies which enables us to unify tendencies which otherwise appear chaotic. Everything is unified in our account (or logos) of the changes around us. We see the balance and connectedness between things in our objective account of events. But nevertheless everything in the world is moving. Why do we exist? “Logos has no purpose. Time is a child who plays checkers. The power of sovereignty is the power of a child.” (It speaks of a spontaneous and arbitrary creation rather than a purpose.) The universe (logos) exists eternally and without any cause-effect relationship.  THE DENIAL OF ORIGI XENOPHANES (C.570 - C.475 BCE): Negative Doctrine: Our understanding of God is related to the objects we observe. (Our imagination is limited by our minds and experiences.) In Ancient Greece, gods were anthropomorphic. (Anthropomorphism) However, they exhibit morally deficient and unvirtuous behaviors. Thus, Xenophanes states, “Gods did not create human; humans (based on their experiences and needs) created God.” Positive Doctrine: Xenophanes did not differentiate God and the universe. He described God as “all-seeing, all-hearing, and all-thinking”. He emphasizes that “God must be perfect and complete”. N PARMENIDES (C.515 - C.440 BCE): Parmanides was allegedly the first to assert that the earth is spherical and situated in the centre of the universe. Parmenides began as a Pythagorean but was outraged by 9 Heracleitus and his violation of the law of contradiction. If there is no stability then the same things can be moving and not moving, or hot and cold at the same time. He objected strongly to this everchanging world and went to the other extreme by arguing that all change is an illusion. He concluded that the multiplicity of the existing things, their changing forms and motion, are only an appearance of a single eternal reality (‘Being’), thus giving rise to the Parmenidean principle that ‘all is one’. He attempted to reach reality/truth about the universe and existence solely through a rational method, disregarding the universe explained through the senses. He is considered the first logician, but also he may be regarded as the founder of metaphysics. Parmenides is arguing that when something exists then it is not possible for it not to exist. Being is eternal and cannot come from nothing. (Islamic thinkers have been influenced by this idea.) Being is unchangeable/immutable. (Heraclitus emphasized a constantly changing universe, but Parmenides argued that the universe was unchanging.) There is no void in the universe. It is indivisible.  PLURALISTS THE DEFINITION OF ORIGIN WITH MULTIPLE SUBSTANCES EMPEDOCLES (C.490 - C.430 BCE): Empedocles completed the natural philosophy developed by the Greeks by asserting that all matter was composed of four essential ingredients: fire, air, water and earth. All these four elements must be balanced. Every body contains four elements in a proportional manner. Empedocles was strongly influenced by Parmenides, who emphasised the unity of all things. He therefore argued that nothing either comes into being nor is destroyed but is merely transformed, depending on the ratio of basic substances, to one another. Like Heracleitus, he believed that two forces, LOVE and STRIFE, interact to bring together and to separate the four substances. The ratio of the elements in the body is determined by these two forces. The structure of the elements is indestructible and immutable. Strife makes each of these elements withdraw itself from the others; Love makes them mingle together. The real world is at a stage in which neither force dominates. In the beginning, Love was dominant and all four substances were mixed together; during the formation of the cosmos, Strife entered to separate air, fire, earth and water from one another. Subsequently, the four elements were again arranged in partial combinations in certain places; springs and volcanoes, for example, show the presence of both water and fire in the earth. Empedocles believed in the transmigration of souls and declared that sinners must wander for 30,000 seasons through many mortal bodies and be tossed from one of the four elements to another. Escape from such punishment requires purification, particularly abstention from the flesh of animals, whose souls may once have inhabited human bodies. DEMOCRITUS (C.460 - C.370 BCE): Democritus is famous for his ‘atoms and the void’ doctrines which anticipated approximately to modern atomic theory. The smallest particle of matter is the ATOM. This particle is uncreated and cannot be destroyed. Atoms carry the entirety of the characteristics of the entity they create. They are constantly in motion, eternal, invisible and homogeneous. Democritus asserted that space, or the Void, exists equally with the reality, or Being of physical objects. He regarded the Void as a vacuum, an infinite space in which moved an infinite number of atoms that made up Being (i.e. the physical world). While atoms differ in quantity, differences of quality are only apparent, owing to the impressions caused on our senses by different configurations and combinations of atoms. A thing is hot or cold, sweet or bitter, or hard or soft only by convention. The only things that exist in reality are atoms and the Void. Unlike Parmenides, he claims there is a void and that atoms move within this void. There are infinite numbers of atoms. According to him, knowledge comes through reason. The senses lead us to dark and false information. (That’s why he is considered as a Rationalist.)