Anatomy & Physiology Lab PRELIM PDF

LESSON 1: MICROSCOPE PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM...

LESSON 1: MICROSCOPE PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ○ Hole is present in the center, where the light Microscope rays pass through Constructed in the 16th century. ○ Slides or objects are placed on the stage and Revolutionized science with their ability to magnify small studied objects. ○ Diaphragm can be found below the stage Produces images with definitive structures that can be controlling the amount of light that identified. reaches the specimen Used to visualize cells, tissues, microorganisms, giving a Stage Clip contrasting image that is magnified. ○ Two clips attached atop the stage Microscopes are made up of lenses of each with their own ○ For holding the slide in position magnification and magnification power. Body tube ○ A hollow tubular part attached to the upper part Brief History of Microscope of the arm of the microscope Zacharias Janssen ○ Can be moved up and down via adjustment ○ Invented the first compound microscope knobs commonly used in laboratories Draw Tube Robert Hooke (1665) ○ A cylindrical structure on top of the body tube ○ An english physicist who looked into the ○ Holds the ocular lens microscope and described cells of a silver cork as Revolving Nosepiece pores ○ It is a circular and revolving metallic part ○ Lived in a monastery attached at the end of the body tube The Compound Microscope ○ Has holes in which objective lenses can be fitted Dust Shield ○ Lies atop the revolving nosepiece ○ Keeps dusts from settling in the objectives Fine Focus Knob ○ A small-sized knob ○ Used for fine and sharp focusing on the object ○ Also used for exact focusing Coarse Focus Knob ○ A large-sized knob ○ Used to move the body tube up and down ○ For object focusing Illuminating Part → Provide Light Illuminator/Lamp – A steady light source (110 volts in the US, 200 volts in Ph) that shines through the slide Iris Diaphragm ○ Can be adjusted to varying intensity that is The Microscope Consists of Three (3) Parts projected through the slide. ○ Using it has no set rules; the setting depends on Mechanical Part → Support & Adjustment the transparency of the specimen and the degree of contrast you desire in your image Base – Basal and horseshoe-shaped Condenser – Lens that concentrates light to the specimen Pillar – Strong vertical projection developing from the foot Mirror – Reflects light ray through the object or base ○ Concave – Reflects natural light Arm – A curved structure used for handling the ○ Plane – Reflects artificial light microscope Stage Optical Part → Set/System of Lenses that enlarge specimens ○ Flat rectangular plate attached to the lower end Ocular/Eyepiece of the arm ○ A small tube consisting of lenses PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 1 MICROSCOPE 1  LESSON 1: MICROSCOPE PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ○ Indicates the relative power of magnification, Objective Lens Color Coding such as: - Scanning Objective 4x Magnification Used for the initial location of the specimen - Low Power Objective (LPO) 10x Magnification Views the specimen in a larger field May also be used for the initial location of the specimen - High Power Objective (HPO) 40x Magnification Obtains greater magnification and views detailed structure of the specimen Supplementary Notes - Oil-Immersion Objective (OIO) 100x Magnification 🗣 Wet Mount Preparation – a drop of water is used to 🗣 suspend the specimen between the slide and cover slip. Used for magnifying extremely small specimens: Cedarwood oil – Applied to the specimen under the 100x bacterial cells objective lens to prevent refraction, thus improving A drop of cedarwood oil is placed on the slide 🗣 resolution for better refraction 🗣 Focal Point – The point of absolute visuality Magnification Cheek Cell – What we saw on the cheek cells are epithelial 🗣 Total magnification can be determined by multiplying the cells power of the ocular lens (10x) by the power of the Onion Cell – What we saw are stomata objective (4x, 10, 40, 100x). ★ The stomata are open during the day and closed at night. Objective used Magnification Ocular Lens Total Magnification ★ This behavior is due to the plant's need for gas Scanning 4x 10x 40x exchange during photosynthesis. Objective (SO) KIND OF MICROSCOPE: Low Power 10x 10x 100x https://byjus.com/physics/types-of-microscope/ Objective (LPO) High Power 40x 10x 400x Objective (HPO) Oil immersion 100x 10x 1000x Objective (OIO) PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 1 MICROSCOPE 2  LESSON 2: THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Body Landmark – a meaningful loci with high degree of accuracy “Special terminologies are used to prevent misunderstanding” Anterior Landmark Exact Terms are Used for: Position Direction Regions Structures Orientation & Directional Terms Posterior Landmark PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 2 THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY 3  LESSON 2: THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Body Planes ★ Cranial Cavity – Houses the brain, cranial nerves, enclosed by the skull ★ Spinal Cavity – Houses the spinal cord and spinal nerves ★ Thoracic (Chest) Cavity – Houses the lungs and heart ★ Diaphragm – A muscle that plays a role in respiration ★ Abdominal Cavity – Houses the digestive organs ★ Pelvic Cavity – Houses the excretory and reproductive system Abdominopelvic Quadrants Sagittal/Median Plane Divides the body into: ○ Left portions ○ Right portions Frontal/Coronal Plane Divides the body into: ○ Anterior (front) portion ○ Posterior (back) portion Transverse/Horizontal Plane Divides the body into: ○ Superior (upper) portion ○ Inferior (lower) portion Abdominopelvic Regions Body Cavities Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac Gallbladder Stomach Spleen Liver Pancrea Stomach Right Kidney Liver Liver (tip) Kidney (right & left) Left Kidney Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar Ascending Colon Stomach Left Kidney Liver (tip) Pancrea Descending Colon Right Kidney Transverse Colon Small intestine Small intestine Small intestine RIght Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac Appendix Bladder Descending Colon Ascending Colon Sigmoid Colon Sigmoid Colon Cecum Colon Small intestine Small intestine Small intestine PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 2 THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY 4  LESSON 2: THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Abdominopelvic Major Organs PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 2 THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY 5  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Consists of multiple layers of cells Epithelial tissue The basal layer rests on the Forms the outer layer of the body (skin) as well as the basement membrane, with a lining of internal organs and cavities. layer on top Serves a variety of functions like: Provides greater protection ○ Protection: The epithelial layer protects the than simple epithelium body from mechanical, chemical, and microbial Stratified Squamous (Scale-like–flat & thin–cells) damage. ○ Outer layer of skin, mouth (esophagus), vagina ○ Secretion: Some epithelial cells secrete ○ Protects against abrasion, drying out substances like mucus, enzymes, and hormones. (desiccation), infection ○ Absorption: Epithelial cells in the digestive and Stratified Cuboidal respiratory systems absorb nutrients, gases, and ○ Lines ducts of sweat glands other substances. ○ Secretes water and ions ○ Sensation: Epithelial cells in the skin and sensory Stratified Columnar organs detect sensations like touch, ○ Lines epididymis, mammary glands, larynx temperature, and pain. ○ Secretes mucus ○ Filtration: The epithelium in the kidneys filters ○ Has basement membrane waste and excess water from the blood. ○ Pseudostratified Epithelial Tissue Are composed of closely packed cells that are arranged in All cells are in contact with the continuous sheets. basement membrane but not all cells These cells rest on a basement membrane, which reach the surface separates the epithelium from the underlying connective ○ Glandular Epithelial Tissues (nakikita sa ducts) tissue. Can either be unicellular or Can be found in: multicellular ○ Body covering (skin or integument) Tissues used for secretion ○ Body lining ○ Sensory Epithelial Tissue ○ Glandular tissue For reception of stimuli and Epithelial tissues can be classified either: transmission of impulses ○ Simple Epithelium ○ Germinal Epithelial Tissue Consists of a single layer of cells Lines the reproductive systems May adhere to connective tissues, Na spspot sha sa vagina At muscle, or other epithelial cell. betlog Simple Squamous (Flat & thin cells like blocks) ○ Ciliated/Flagellated Epithelium ○ Lines blood vessels (endothelium) and air sacs of Can be spotted in the trachea, lungs (alveoli) and body cavity protecting it ○ Permits exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gasses Cellular Basis of Life ○ Lie on top of the basement membrane like floor Life is primarily made up by 4 elements tiles ○ Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen Simple Cuboidal (Cube shaped cells) Contains lesser elements and electrolytes ○ Lines kidney tubules and glands ○ Calcium, iodine, iron, Na, K ○ Secretes and reabsorbs water and small 60% made up of water molecules Simple Columnar (Rectangular shaped) Anatomy of a Generalized Cell ○ Lines most digestive organs Small & large intestine ○ Absorbs nutrients ○ Produces mucus ○ Has goblet cell ○ Stratified Epithelium PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 6  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ○ The primary function of nucleoli is to produce the components needed to assemble ribosomes, which are the cellular machines that synthesize proteins. Chromatin Loose bumpy threads when cell is not dividing Turns into chromosome when cells start dividing The material that makes up the genetic information inside the nucleus of a cell. It is the combination of DNA and proteins that packages and organizes the DNA. Composed of: ○ DNA The genetic material ○ Histone Proteins that DNA wraps around to form nucleosomes, the basic structural units of chromatin–compacting and organizing Plasma Membrane Nucleus Control center Contains DNA that acts as blueprint for building the whole body Has a nuclear envelope/membrane ○ Double membrane with fluid filled spaces or moats and nuclear pores ○ Semi permeable, encloses the nucleoplasm fluid like substance in the nucleus of a cell in which the nucleolus and chromatin are suspended Has 2 organelles within it such as: A fragile, transparent barrier Nucleoli Contains the cells content (organelles), separating them Are small, oval shaped, membrane-less organelles found from the external environment within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The plasma membrane is composed of: The sites of ribosome biogenesis, where ribosomal RNA ○ Phospholipids (bilayer–2 layers) (rRNA) is transcribed, processed, and assembled with ribosomal proteins to form the ribosomal subunits. PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 7  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM 💝🌊 Outer layer: polar head → hydrophilic (can form hydrogen bonds w/ Cytoplasm water molecule) 💔🌊 Inner layer: nonpolar tail → A jelly-like substance that fills the interior of a cell, except hydrophobic (repel water) the nucleus ○ this structure allows the membrane to be 80% water selectively permeable, controlling what enters Where the organelles and other cellular components are and leaves the cell suspended Cholesterol Where most cellular activities occur ○ Has a stabilizing effect–maintaining fluidity and Contains the metabolic machinery (organelles) of every permeability by packing tightly cell ○ Help form lipid raft by clustering other lipids and Includes non-functioning units such as: protein ○ Glycogen - A polysaccharide that serve as a form Protein of energy/carbohydrates used for energy. ○ Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and ○ Melanin - Pigment responsible for skin, hair, and nitrogen (CHON) eye color. ○ Binding site for hormones or other signaling ○ Fat droplets - Are stored in adipocyte (fat cells) cells, like neurotransmitters (ginagamit sila ng and serve as an energy reserve and insulation. other cell to communicate with each other) The organelles within the cytoplasm are: ○ For communication ○ Mitocondria (plural) Glycoprotein (sugar protein) Tiny threadlike, sausage shaped ○ Are proteins that have carbohydrates (1C:2H:1O) organelle ○ Determines blood type It has two plasma membrane ○ Are receptor proteins Porin ○ Identifies foreign cells or molecules such as Cristae bacterias and virus Enzymes dissolved in the fluid within the mitochondria, along with cristae, and oxygen breaks down food Specialization of the Plasma Membrane The food turns into energy and is Tight Junction ○ Impermeable junction that binds cell together ○ Leak-proof sheets that prevent substances from passing through the extracellular spaces between the cell refers to the part of a multicellular organism outside the cells, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid. This is distinguished from intracellular space, which is inside the cells released as heat and turned into ATP Desmosomes ○ Ribosomes ○ Anchoring junction that prevent cells subjected Tiny round dark bodies made of to mechanical stress from being pulled apart protein and ribosomal Ribonucleic Gap Junction Acid (rRNA) ○ Seen in the heart and embryonic cells Smallest organelle ○ Allows communication The site of protein synthesis ○ Has connexons that connect neighboring cells Messenger RNA (mRNA) PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 8  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ○ After DNA ○ Has no ribosomes transcription, the mRNA carries the genetic instructions from the nucleus to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. ○ mRNA sequence is read and used as a template to assemble the amino acids → on its surface; polypeptide chain smooth → protein. ○ A single-stranded nucleic acid Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ○ Golgi apparatus ○ A type of RNA that Has cisternae is a structural Stack of flattened component of membranous sacs, which ribosomes. forms vesicles for transport ○ The structural Found near the nucleus and principal component of traffic director for cellular proteins ribosomes w/ Major function is to modify and protein. package protein ○ Endoplasmic Reticulum Tagged protein when accumulate, the Are fluid filled cistern that coils and sacs swell, pinch off and form twist through the cytoplasm secretory vesicles Provides network of channels for When vesicles reach the plasma carrying substances from one part of membrane it ruptures and the content the cell to the other are ejected outside the cell Has 2 types: Assembly and packing organelle Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) ○ Has ribosomes on its walls; rough ○ Lysosomes (Suicide bag) ○ Where protein Responsible for digesting worn-out synthesis occur unusable cell structure Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Vesicle with enzymes for intracellular ○ Where cholesterol digestion. (Lec) (lipid–phospholipid s & steroids) synthesis, fat metabolism and detoxification of drugs occur PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 9  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ○ Peroxisomes ○ Provide internal Membranous sacs that use molecular guy wires to resist oxygen to detoxify a number of pulling forces harmful or poisonous substance such as: Dynamic system of protein filaments Alcohol that supports, organizes, and moves Formaldehyde (medicine) eukaryotic cells and their internal Disarms/removes the free radical’s structures. highly reactive unpaired electrons that Interacts with accessory proteins, such scramble the structure of protein and as motor proteins. nucleic acids ○ Centrioles unstable atoms that can Rod shaped bodies made up of damage cells, causing illness microtubules and aging. Directs the formation of mitotic Antioxidants help eliminate spindle during cell division free radicals Converts the free radical into hydrogen CLASS NOTES: peroxide, then the catalase enzyme within the peroxisome converts it into Cell Physiology → Basic unit/function unit of life w ater Cell theory → Mathias lebel, rodolf thudol, THeodor schwan Free Radical → Peroxisome → all cells come from pre-existing cells → Hydrogen Peroxide → Catalase enzyme → Water CEll and tissues → start an antioxidant enzyme that breaks down hydrogen Overview of cellular basis of life → life began in genes (bible: peroxide into water (and genesis) oxygen daw according to google pero wala sa ppt). Lysomesome – pryohydolic sa animal cells lang Peroxisome are numerous in the kidneys and liver Nucleus → control center, easy to locate and identity, central GITNA ng cell, contains DNA(blueprint) tool body protected by the nuclear Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down envelope or membrane cAN HAVE DOUBLE MEMBRANE HAS amino acids, fatty acids, and toxic NUCLEAR PORES PARA MAKABSORB NG NUTRIENTS substances (lec) Semipermeable prevents dryness Nucleoplasm (plasma ni nucleus) ○ Cytoskeleton Nucleoli - ribosome, my cromatin materials (yung loose bonds DITO Network of protein structure that NAG STSTART CROMOSOME, BEARS THE GENE AND GENETIC extend through the cytoplasm MATERIAL , CROMOSOMAL ABBRERATIONS) Determines the shape and intracellular transport Always bad si virus Has 3 components: Good bacteria like lactobachelius Microtubule → For cell division Cell Theory progenitors: Microfilament → For cell motility / movement 1. Matthias Schleiden Intermediate filament 2. Theodor Schwann ○ Forms 3. Rudolf Virchow desmosomes Cell Theory PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 10  LESSON 3: CELLS PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. Cell Physiology The study of the function of the basic unit or functional unit of life. Exocytosis Movement of materials out of the cell. Vesicles containing substances fuse with the plasma membrane. Contents are released into the extracellular space. Endocytosis Uptake of materials into the cell. Plasma membrane engulfs extracellular substances. Forms a vesicle that pinches off and brings materials inside the cell. Peptidoglycan Providing structural support and protection. Liver "laboratory" Metabolizes nutrients, detoxifies harmful substances, produces bile, and synthesizes proteins like albumin and clotting factors. Kidneys Filters by removing waste products and excess substances from the blood, which are then excreted as urine. Help regulate electrolyte, blood pressure, and overall fluid balance in the body. PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 3 CELLS 11  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM ★ Sensation: Can be located in the integumentary Four (4) Types of Tissues and sensory organs detect sensations like touch, Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium) temperature, and pain Sheet of cells ★ FIltration: Can be located in the kidneys, which Covers the exterior surface of the body filters waste and excess water from the blood Lines internal cavities and passageways Forms glands Simple Epithelial Tissue/Epithelium Connective Tissue A single layer of cells Binds the cells and organs together May adhere to connective tissues, muscle, or other Has a variety of functions such as: epithelial cell ○ Protection Simple Squamous Epithelium (Thin, flat, block-like cells) ○ Support ○ The reason behind the integration of all body parts Muscle Tissue Responds to stimulation Contracts to provide movement Nervous Tissue Permits the exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gasses Allows the propagation of electrochemical Lines: signals in the form of nerve impulses blood vessel (endothelium) Responsible for the communication between air sacs of the lungs (alveoli) different regions of the body body cavity Body Tissues → Group of specialized cells with similar structure Simple Cuboidal Epithelium (Cube-shaped cells) and function Epithelial Tissue Forms the outer layer of the body (skin) as well as the lining of internal organs and cavities Are composed of closely packed cells that are arranged in Lines the kidney continuous sheets—cells that fit closely together Secretes and reabsorbs water and small molecules Regenerates easily if nourished Avascular (Absence of blood supply) Simple Columnar Epithelium (Rectangular-shaped cells) These cells rest on the basement membrane—The lower surface is bound by the basement membrane Which separates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue These cells can be found in different areas such as: Body coverings (integumentary) Body linings Glandular Tissue Serves a variety of functions such as: Lines digestive organs: small & large intestine ★ Protection: Protects the body from the Absorbs nutrients mechanical, chemical, and microbial damage Produce mucus ★ Secretion: Granular tissue: which releases Has goblet cells substances like mucus, enzymes, and hormones ○ Synthesizes mucus ★ Absorption: Can be located in the digestive and respiratory systems which absorb nutrients, gasses, and other substances PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 12  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Stratified Epithelial Tissue/Epithelium Pseudostratified Epithelial Tissue Consists of multiple layers of cells Its basal layer rests on the basement membrane Provides greater protection than simple epithelium Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Thin, flat, block-like cells) Has some cells that do not reach the surface Attached to the basement membrane Glandular Epithelial Tissue Lines: ○ Outer layer of the skin ○ Mouth (esophagus) ○ Vagina Protects against: (DAI) ○ Abrasion Lines organs that releases substances in the body; ○ Desiccation (drying out) secretion ○ Infection Unicellular glandular epithelial tissue Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium (Cube-shaped cells) ★ Consists of individual secretory cells ★ Simple structure ★ Includes: ★ Goblet cells — located in the intestinal and respiratory tract; mucus ★ Neuroendocrine cells — located in the gastrointestinal tract; hormone Lines ducts of sweat glands Multicellular glandular epithelial tissue Secretes water and ions ★ Specialized cells work together to perform Stratified Columnar Epithelium (Rectangular-shaped cells) secretory function ★ Complex structure ★ Includes: ★ Salivary glands ★ Sweat glands ★ Thyroid glands Sensory Epithelial Tissue Secretes mucus Lines: (MEL) ○ Epididymis ○ Mammary glands ○ Larynx The receptor of stimuli and transmission of impulses PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 13  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Germinal Epithelial Tissue Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Non-living materials surrounding living cells Consists of two (2) elements: Ground substance Made up of: ○ water ○ Adhesion proteins ○ Polysaccharide (storage) molecules Lines the reproductive system Fiber — Produced by the cells Has three (3) types Ciliated/Flagellated Epithelium (May be columnar or cuboidal) ○ Collagen Fibers ○ White ○ For flexibility and strength ○ Elastic Fibers ○ Yellow ○ For elasticity ○ Reticular Fibers Lines the trachea, protecting it Connective Tissue Types of Arrangement of Fibers in the Extracellular Matrix Loose Connective Tissue Loose arrangement of fibers in the matrix Fibroblasts are separated by jelly-like matrix with white Found everywhere in the body collagen fibers and yellow elastic fibers The most abundant and widely distributed tissue Lies beneath the epithelium of the skin and most of the Binds the body tissues together internal organs, such as: Supports the body ○ Mesenchyme Provides protection ○ Mucous Connective Tissue Can be vascular (presence of blood) or avascular (absence ○ Reticular Connective Tissue of blood) ○ Areolar Connective Tissue Have Extracellular Matrix (ECM) PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 14  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Loose Reticular Connective Tissue Loose Areolar Connective Tissue Delicate network of interwoven fibers Most widely distributed connective tissue Forms stroma of lymphoid organs such as: Soft and pliable ★ Provides structure and organization. Contains all types of fibers ○ Lymph nodes Soaks up excess fluid ○ Spleen ○ Bone marrow Loose Adipose (body fat) Connective Tissue Dense (Fibrous) Connective Tissue Its matrix consists of collagen fibers; contains many closely packed collagen fibers Has fibroblasts in its cells Has more functions in the vertebrate than loose connective tissues Has a less amorphous ground substance ○ Non-fibrous, gel-like matrix surrounding the collagen fibers and cells in connective tissue. Includes: Tendons — Attaches muscle to bone Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules Ligaments — Attaches bone to bone predominate;Has the same matrix as areolar connective Has two (2) types of arrangement: tissue, but it’s dominated by fat cells making it more Irregular arranged dense connective tissue specialized for energy storage It cells has large lipid deposits Insulates the body Protects some organs A site of fuel storage PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 15  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Specialized Connective Tissue Cartilage Are skeletons during the embryonic stage Composed of chondrocytes located in lacunae (a small space) with collagenous or elastic fibers Has three (3) types of appearances in the matrix: Hyaline Cartilage Regular arranged dense connective tissue ○ The most common cartilage ○ Composed of collagen fibers and rubbery matrix ○ Fetal skeleton is made up of it PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 16  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Elastic Cartilage Bone or Osseous Tissue ○ Provides elasticity ○ Supports the external ear Rigid form of connective tissue Comprises most high vertebrae skeletons Made up of osteocytes Has canaliculi ○ Narrow channels ○ Radiates from each lacuna ○ Forms lamellar structure ○ Penetrates adjacent canaliculi of neighboring lacunae Fibrocartilage ○ Highly compressible Hemopoietic (Vascular) Tissue ○ Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae Responsible for the formation and maturation of blood cells PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 17  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Blood Cardiac Muscle Blood cells are surrounded by the fluid matrix Fibers are visible during clotting Serves as a transport vehicle for materials Made up of: ○ RBC ○ WBC ○ Platelets ○ Plasma Muscle Tissue Exclusively located in the heart Involuntary muscles pumping blood; responsible for the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart Its cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at the Produces movement intercalated discs Has three types which are: Its cells are striated ○ Skeletal muscle ○ Banded appearance ○ Cardiac muscle Has a single nucleus per cell ○ Smooth muscle Smooth Muscle Skeletal Muscle Voluntary muscle; controllable An involuntary muscle Its cells are attached to connective tissues Surrounds hollow organs Its cells are striated Attached to other smooth muscle cells ○ Banded appearance Has no visible striations; therefore smooth Has more than one nucleus per cell Each cell has a single nucleus PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 18  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Nervous Tissue Types of Neurons Based on the Number of Protoplasmic Processes Anaxonic Bipolar Pseudounipol Multipolar Neuron Neuron ar Neuron Neuron Composed of two (2) cells: ★ Neurons - the functional units that transmit electrical impulses Have more Have two (2) Have a single Have more ★ Nerve support cells - such as glial cells that than two (2) processes elongated than two (2) processes separated by process with processes provide support and insulation for neurons the cell body the cell body Primarily function is to send impulses to other areas of the Axons are situated to Presence of a body, which elicits: indistinguisha one side single axon ★ Irritability - Nervous tissue can detect and ble from and multiple respond to stimuli dendrites dendrites ★ Conductivity - Neurons can rapidly conduct electrical impulses over long distances Neuron Neuroglia Made out of: Supporting cells ○ perikaryon (body cell) Provides neurons with: ○ One or more axon or dendrites (protoplasmic ○ Nourishment process) ○ Protection Do not undergo cell division ○ Insulation The receptor of stimuli Undergo cell division—which may cause brain tumor Impulse transmitter PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 19  LESSON 4: TISSUES PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Types of Neuroglia Regeneration of Tissues Easily Regenerating Tissues Epithelial Tissue Fibrous Connective Tissue Bone Tissue Poorly Regenerating Tissue Skeletal Tissue Tissues replaced by scar tissue Tissue Repair Cardiac Muscle Regeneration ○ Replacement of damaged tissue by the same Nervous Tissue within the brain and spinal cord kind of cell Fibrosis Developmental Aspect of Tissues ○ Repair by scar tissue (dense fibrous connective Epithelial tissue arises from the three primary germ layers tissue) Muscles and connective tissues arise from the mesoderm Determination of Method Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm ○ Type of tissue damaged Old age decreases the mass and viability in most tissues ○ Severity of the injury Events in Tissue Repair Capillaries become very permeable; this allows fluid, proteins, and blood cells to leak out and initiate the inflammatory response. This elicits: ○ The introduction of clotting proteins; these proteins form a fibrin clot to stop bleeding and seal the wound. ○ Walls off injured area; The clot and inflammatory cells work to isolate the damaged tissue from the rest of the body. Formation of granulation tissue; New blood vessels and connective tissue grow into the wound bed, forming granulation tissue that will eventually fill the wound. Regeneration of surface epithelium; The epithelial cells at the wound edges proliferate and migrate to cover the wound surface, restoring the protective skin barrier. PCBl 102: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LEC LESSON 4 TISSUES 20  LESSON 5: FUCKOFFF PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM https://www.slideshare.net/LawrenceJames/cellchap Serous Membranes Serous membranes are defined by: Skin and Body Membranes Study Surface made of simple squamous epithelium Underlined by areolar connective tissue Notes Lines open body cavities that are closed to the exterior Serous layers are separated by serous fluid Function of Body Membranes Specific serous membranes include: Body membranes serve several essential functions, including: Peritoneum (abdominal cavity) Pleura (around the lungs) Line or cover body surfaces Pericardium (around the heart) Protect body surfaces Lubricate body surfaces Connective Tissue Membrane Classification of Body Membranes The synovial membrane is a type of connective tissue membrane that: Body membranes can be classified into two main categories: Contains connective tissue only Epithelial membranes Lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints ○ Cutaneous membrane ○ Mucous membrane ○ Serous membrane Integumentary System Connective tissue membranes ○ Synovial membrane The integumentary system consists of: Skin (cutaneous membrane) Cutaneous Membrane Skin derivatives such as sweat glands, oil glands, hairs, and nails The cutaneous membrane, commonly known as the skin, is characterized by: Skin Functions Being a dry membrane Serving as the outermost protective boundary The skin performs several critical functions, including: Composed of a superficial epidermis made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Protection from mechanical, chemical, bacterial, thermal Having an underlying dermis primarily made of dense damage, UV radiation, and desiccation connective tissue Aiding in heat regulation Excreting urea and uric acid Synthesizing vitamin D Mucous Membranes Mucous membranes have the following features: Skin Structure Surface epithelium varies depending on the site The skin is composed of two main layers: Underlined by loose connective tissue known as lamina propria Epidermis - the outer layer made of stratified squamous Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior epithelium, often keratinized Often adapted for absorption or secretion Dermis - dense connective tissue located beneath the epidermis PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 5: FUCKTHIS 21  LESSON 5: FUCKOFFF PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Deep to the dermis is the hypodermis, which is not part of the skin ○ Eccrine - open via duct to pore on skin surface but anchors it to underlying organs and is composed mostly of ○ Apocrine - ducts empty into hair follicles adipose tissue. Sweat and Its Function Layers of Epidermis Sweat is primarily composed of water, with some metabolic waste, The epidermis consists of several layers: fatty acids, and proteins (in apocrine sweat). Its functions include: Stratum basale - where cells undergo mitosis, lies next to Dissipating excess heat the dermis Excreting waste products Stratum spinosum Inhibiting bacteria growth due to its acidic nature Stratum granulosum Odor resulting from associated bacteria Stratum lucidum - present only in thick skin Stratum corneum - composed of shingle-like dead cells Hair Anatomy Melanin Hair is produced by the hair bulb and consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells. Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color. Hair Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes, which are primarily anatomy includes: located in the stratum basale. Its color ranges from yellow to brown to black, and the amount produced is influenced by genetics and Central medulla sunlight exposure. Cortex surrounding the medulla Cuticle on the outside of the cortex, which is the most heavily keratinized part Dermis The dermis has two layers: Associated Hair Structures Papillary layer - contains dermal papillae, pain receptors, Structures associated with hair include: and capillary loops Reticular layer - contains blood vessels, glands, and nerve Hair follicle - dermal and epidermal sheath surrounding receptors the hair root Arrector pili - smooth muscle Sebaceous gland Normal Skin Color Determinants Sweat gland Skin color is influenced by: Nails Melanin - yellow, brown, or black pigments Carotene - orange-yellow pigment from certain vegetables Nails are scale-like modifications of the epidermis that are heavily Hemoglobin - red coloring from blood cells in dermis keratinized. The stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, capillaries, with oxygen content affecting the extent of red responsible for growth, and their lack of pigment makes them coloring colorless. Nail structures include: Free edge Appendages of the Skin Body Root of nail Skin appendages include: Eponychium - proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body Sebaceous glands - produce oil, lubricate skin, and kill bacteria; most have ducts that empty into hair follicles and are activated at puberty Skin Homeostatic Imbalances Sweat glands - widely distributed in skin, with two types: PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 5: FUCKTHIS 22  LESSON 5: FUCKOFFF PCB 102L FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025| PROF. ANNA JALOVA | BY EZEKIEL S. CAMCAM Common skin imbalances include: Skin Cancer Types Infections Types of skin cancer include: ○ Athlete's foot - fungal infection (Tinea pedis) ○ Boils and carbuncles - bacterial infection Basal cell carcinoma - least malignant and most common (Staphylococcus) type, arises from the stratum basale ○ Cold sores - caused by a virus Squamous cell carcinoma - arises from the stratum Infections and allergies spinosum, can metastasize to lymph nodes; early removal ○ Contact dermatitis - allergic reaction from allows a good chance of cure exposure Malignant melanoma - most deadly skin cancer, arises ○ Impetigo - bacterial infection from melanocytes, metastasizes rapidly to lymph and ○ Psoriasis - cause unknown, triggered by trauma, blood vessels; detection uses the ABCD rule infection, or stress Burns - tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, ABCD Rule electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals, with associated dangers including dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and The ABCD rule is used for detecting malignant melanoma: circulatory shock A = Asymmetry - two sides of the pigmented mole do not Rules of Nines match B = Border irregularity - borders of the mole are not The "Rules of Nines" is a method to determine the extent of burns smooth by dividing the body into 11 areas, each representing about 9% of C = Color - different colors in the pigmented area total body surface area. D = Diameter - spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter Severity of Burns Burns are classified by severity: First-degree burns - only the epidermis is damaged; skin appears red and swollen Second-degree burns - damage to the epidermis and upper dermis; skin is red with blisters Third-degree burns - destroys the entire skin layer; burn appears gray-white or black Critical Burns Burns are considered critical if: Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns There are third-degree burns on the face, hands, or feet Skin Cancer Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer and can be classified into two types: Benign - does not spread (encapsulated) Malignant - metastasizes (spreads) to other parts of the body PCB 102L: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB LESSON 5: FUCKTHIS 23