Anatomy-and-Physiology-Prelims.pdf

Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Defining Anatomy and Physiology the abdomen. It helps us Anatomy is the scientific study...

Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Defining Anatomy and Physiology the abdomen. It helps us Anatomy is the scientific study appreciate the of the body’s relatedness of structure. body structures, scientific discipline such as how of investigating the muscles, nerves, different parts of the blood vessels, body and other the part of the body structures work for study/structure of together to serve the body a particular body to dissect, or cut region. apart and separate - Head to Foot “Ana” means apart, Systemic Anatomy “tomy” means to cut - is the study of Microscopic the structures Anatomy (smaller that make up a structures) - some of discrete body these structures are system – that is, very small and can a group of only be observed structures that and analyzed with work together to the assistance of a perform a unique microscope. This body function. includes the For example, a following: systematic Cytology – the study anatomical study of cells of the muscular Histology – the system would study of tissues consider all of Gross Anatomy the skeletal (larger structures) – muscles of the larger structures can body. readily be seen, - By organ system manipulated, Anatomical Terms measured, and – terms without weighed parenthesis. Used Anatomists take two for talking in general approaches hospitals to the study of the Common Terms – body’s structures: terms with Regional Anatomy parenthesis. Used - is the study of for talking with the patients. interrelationships Physiology is the scientific study of all the of the chemistry and structures in a physics of the specific body structures of the region, such as body and the ways Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 in which they work together to support the functions of life processes and functions of living things. Therefore, it is the science of body functions Categories of Physiology: Neurophysiology – is the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, Skeletal System movement, and thinking Framework of over 200 bones Cardiovascular Hold the body together and give it shape physiology Protect the organs and tissues Renal physiology Provides anchor points for the muscular system, which includes Supports and protects the body Muscular System Creates the movement of the body Contributes to body temperature homeostasis Three types of muscles: Skeletal Smooth Cardiac Structural and Functional Organization of the Cardiovascular System (Circulatory System) Human Body A pipeline that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood itself Delivers oxygen, white blood cells, hormones, and nutrients throughout the body Contributes to temperature regulation Nervous System Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Communication network of nerve cells that Removes waste products from the body the body uses to transmit information and Respiratory System coordinate bodily functions It is comprised of the brain (the hub of Is a group of passageways and organs that sensory and intellectual activity), spinal extract life-giving oxygen from the air we cord, cranial nerves spinal nerves breathe Acts as the sensor for homeostasis Air enters the body through nasal cavities, Connects the brain to every part of the body travels down the throat and is then transported to the lungs Endocrine System The lungs extract oxygen for the body to Series of glands that use information carried use and then expel a carbon dioxide by- by the nervous system to help regulate the product when we exhale body’s processes Exchanges air with the atmosphere Neural connection endocrine glands such Provides surface area for the diffusion of as the thyroid are aware of the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood hormones and other chemicals they need to Digestive System produce. These chemicals are then distributed through the body by way of the is an approximately 30-foot series of organs cardiovascular system that convert food into fuel Secretes hormones that regulate many food enters the system through the mouth bodily processes and then moves into the esophagus, the Lymphatic System (Immune System) esophagus, and the intestines nutrients are absorbed into the body while The lymphatic system also utilizes the solid waste is expelled through the anal cardiovascular and nervous system canal, the end of the digestive tract Collection of lymph nodes and vessels that Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients help regulate the body’s defenses into the body Uses neural pathways to transmit Reproductive System information about affected areas of the body and then sends out healing agents like responsible for creating life white blood cells via the blood stream the primary organs differ between sexes Regulates fluid balance in the body woman – ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, Houses some of the immune cells that vagina defend the body from pathogens man – testes and sperm channel Urinary System (Regulatory System) together, fertilization occur, organ systems form, and then a child is born Includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and Produce and exchange gametes urethra House the fetus until birth Urinary or renal system maintains the Lactation body’s electrolyte levels and filters wastes from the blood, which are sent through the Integumentary System blood vessels into the kidneys and then Creates a barrier that protects the body expelled as urine from pathogens and fluid loss Contributes to blood pressure and pH Sensory reception homeostasis Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Characteristics of Life Organization - specific interrelationships for it to perform functions essential for the living organism to thrive. Metabolism - chemical reactions taking place in an organism Responsiveness - capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change Ex: Body respiration process Growth - an increase in number or length Development - organism changes through time (functional capability) Reproduction - ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs and continuity. For example, body temperature homeostasis: Homeostasis Sensors in the skin detect increase in is the state of dynamic stability of the body’s temperature internal conditions. Control center receives sensory information is the ability to maintain balance despite to maintain body temperature setpoint changes in the internal and external (37°C) environment (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, Control center communicates with effector 2016). to change body temperature (e.g., sweating) Ancient Greek ὅμοιος (hómoios, meaning “similar”), from στημι (hístēmi, “standing still”) and stasis, from στάσις (stásis, meaning “standing” Setpoint – is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms Feedback Loops The method of control for many variables of the human body Most variables are controlled through negative feedback The body’s response is to decrease the original stimulus Positive feedback occurs when the original stimulus is enhanced or increased Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 In this example, the levels of sugar in the blood fall in an individual who is between meals. This decrease in circulating blood sugar could compromise the function of the body’s cells, particularly the brain. 1. The decrease is sensed by the pancreas, which releases a hormone called glucagon to alert the body of this dangerous decrease in nutrients 2. Upon receiving the glucagon signal, the liver began to break down glycogen, a storage of carbohydrate and releasing the resulting sugars into the blood. 3. Blood sugar levels rise, and the sensors in the pancreas stop sending signals, Negative Feedback A parallel system works to control blood glucose levels from going too high. After a is a mechanism that reverses a deviation meal or glycogen break down. Blood from the setpoint. glucose levels rise. The pancreas releases In a negative feedback pattern, the action of a hormone known as insulin which helps the effectors “turns off” the action of the cells all over the body to take glucose out of sensor. the blood, bringing glucose levels back occurs to reduce the change or output. Help within the homeostatic range. In either to maintain a stable environment. direction, the system turns itself off. Cold ✓ High Temperature Positive Feedback Sweat → Reduce Temp → Normal Intensifies the change in the body’s ✓ Low Temperature physiological condition rather than reversing Shiver → Produce Heat → Normal it. Glucose Occurs to increase the change or output: High Glucose → Insulin the result of a reaction is amplified to make Low Glucose → Glucagon it occur more quickly. Bacterial Infection Immune (Brain) → Increase body temp (fever) → Normal Wound Beneficial → Cut → H Platelets → Stop blood Birth Cervix contraction → Increase hormone → Birth 1. The first contraction of labor (stimulus) pushes the fetus towards the cervix. 2. The cervix contains nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching (sensors) Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 3. These nerve cells send messages to the elements. The examples of elements are the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary following: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, gland to release the hormone oxytocin into calcium, and iron. the bloodstream. Atoms – smallest unit of any elements. These are 4. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, the smooth muscles in the uterus electron, and neuron. Two or more atoms combine (effectors), pushing the fetus further down to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, the birth canal. This causes even greater proteins, and sugars found in living things. stretching of the cervix. 5. The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release, Molecules – are the chemical building blocks of all and increasingly more forceful contractions body structures. stops only when the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, and Chemical level - From atoms of combined elements the cycle comes to a close. of (H) Hydrogen and (C) Carbon. It forms molecules. Cell – is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which are extremely small, unicellular organisms, have cellular structures. All living structures of human anatomy contain cells and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells. Cellular level – from molecules, it would form of nucleus and mitochondria that can be found on the cell. Cell with same structure can combine Organelles – a human cell functions as its own tiny world encased in a protective membrane that encloses a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. Tissue – is a group of many cells that work together to perform a specific function. Tissue level – cells with same structure can only be formed as tissues. Types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nerve. In tissues, only the same tissues can form an organ like cells. Organ – is a structure of the body that is composed of two or more tissues types; each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions. Structural Organization of the Human Body Organ level – Tissues combine and form an organ. Example: Cardiac Muscle Cell = Heart The Levels of Organization Elements – all matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Organ System – is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or meet the physiological needs of the body. Assigning organs to organ systems can be imprecise since organs that belong to one system can also have functions integral to another system. In fact, most organs contribute to more than one system. System Level – With organs, it can form an organ system that helps function one another. Group of organs Organism – is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life. In multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body work together to maintain the life and health of the organism. Organism Level – a whole living thing Anatomical Terminology Anatomical Position The body is standing upright Feet are parallel and shoulder width apart Toes pointed forward Upper limbs are held out to each side with palms facing forward with thumbs out to the side The terms right and left refer to the patient or cadaver’s right and left, never to the observer’s right and left. Directional Term Body position can be described as prone or Describe parts of the body relative to each supine. other. Prone – describes a face-down orientation Are generally grouped pairs of opposites Supine – describes a face-up orientation (Thompson, 2015) Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 1. Anterior – describes the front (belly) of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot. 2. Posterior – describes the back of the body. The spine is posterior to the stomach. 3. Superior – describes the position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The neck is superior to the shoulders. 4. Inferior – describes a position below or lower than another part of the body. The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. 5. Lateral – describes a structure toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits. 6. Medial – describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body the hallux is the most medial toe. 7. Superficial – describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones. 8. Deep – describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull. 9. Proximal – describes a position on a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium. 10. Distal – describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur. Body Parts and Regions This will help to properly identify specific area/s of a patient body to be evaluated upon. Central Body Region: Head Neck Trunk - Thorax (chest) - Abdomen (between thorax and pelvis) - Pelvis Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 is a slice of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants Determining exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s can be difficult. For this reason, it was subdivided further into regions and quadrants. Clinically, healthcare providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants. Upper Limb These terms are used often in describing Arm the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or Forearm a suspicious mass. Wrist Lower Limb Thigh Leg Ankle Foot Sections and Planes Section Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Often used in illustrations to reveal organs in the head or pelvic cavity Frontal Plane Is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. Often referred to as a coronal plane (“Corona” is Latin for “crown”) Divides the body lengthwise into anterior and posterior portions. Often used in illustrations to show the contents of the abdominal and thoracic cavities. Planes Is an imaginary slice through the body used in imaging. Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections. Sagittal Plane Is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. Divides the body lengthwise into right and left sides Transverse Plane If this vertical plane runs directly down the Is the plane that divides the body or organ middle of the body, it is called the horizontally into upper (superior) and lower midsagittal or median plane. (inferior) portions. If it divides the body into unequal right and Also called horizontal plane left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or longitudinal section. Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Produce images referred to as cross saw cube-like structures, similar to cells and sections. rooms in prisons and monasteries. Used by CT scanners to reveal internal You first need to understand the cells before organs understanding the anatomy and physiology of the human body Functions of Cells: Cell metabolism and energy use - Ability to break down food into food molecules. These food molecules will be used by your body as energy. - Chemical reaction wherein it occurs within cells - During cell metabolism, energy is released for cell activities, such as synthesizing new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which helps in maintaining our body temperature. Synthesis of molecules - Cells can synthesize various types of molecules (such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids). Different cells of the body do not produce the same molecules. Cells' structural and functional units are based on the molecules they produce. ✓ Carbohydrates – Rice, potatoes, fast Cell, Cellular Metabolism, and Reproduction foods. Used by our body as an energy. ✓ Protein – Fish, egg, meat. Cell ✓ Lipids – Fats ✓ Nucleic Acids – present in RNA and are the living structural and functional units DNA enclosed by a membrane. Communication all cells arise from existing cells by the - Two signals: chemical signals (most of process of cell division, in which one cell the cells possess this) and electrical divides into two identical cells. signals (nerve cells have chemical and cell biology or cytology is the study of electrical signals) cellular structure and function. Reproduction and Inheritance smallest/basic unit of life - Each cell contains the genetic basic structural, functional, and biological information of an individual unit of all known organisms - Sperm cells and oocytes – transmit contains many biomolecules such as genetic information to the next proteins and nucleic acids generation Robert Hooke – discovered cells accidentally. His work is to make lenses. He Two Types of Animal Cell observed the bark or cork of the tree and 1. Somatic cell Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - body cells. Control the entrance and exit of the - all the cells in our body molecules that the cells need and do not - in these cells, they are diploid – they need contain two sets of chromosomes (each Function: inherited from parents) ✓ Barrier – protection - ex. Blood cells, bone cells, neuron, ✓ Control signaling – decide the molecules white blood cells that enter the cells and decide which should 2. Germ cell be out of the cells - sex cells - any biological cells that give rise to the gametes of an organism - ex. egg cells(oocytes) and sperm cell Cell Structures and Functions Three (3) Main Parts of the Cell 1. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) 2. Cytoplasm - Cytosol - Cytoplasmic Organelles 3. Cell Nucleus - Chromosomes Extracellular – outside - Genes Intracellular – inside It has polar and non-polar parts 75% of the cell membrane is made up of lipids, which are phospholipids (lipids + phosphorus) 20% is made up of cholesterol, steroids, and glycolipids 5% is made up of lipids with carbohydrate group Phospholipid Hydrophilic (head) – loving water Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) Hydrophobic (tail) – do not want water The skin of the cell Cell Membrane Structure Has a double layer of phospholipids Fats, carbohydrates, protein Consists of a lipid bilayer - made up of Protein channel, receptor molecules, phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids. carbohydrate chains Selectively permeable barrier Maintain the shape of the cell Composed mainly of phospholipid bilayer It has a sensory device – It recognizes Intracellular fluid (ICF) – inside of the cell which should enter or not. It can be - Also called cytosol (under the recognized and be recognized by molecules cytoplasm) The gate of the cell Extracellular fluid (ECF) – outside of the cell Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Proteins also associate with cell membrane Transmembrane proteins act as channels Membrane Proteins: and transporters to assist the entrance of - Integral Protein certain substances - Peripheral Protein Gradients across the Plasma Membrane - Glycoprotein - Glycocalyx Concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other. (e.g. Inside and outside the membrane) Electrical gradient is the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other. Together, these gradients make up an Electrochemical gradient Phospholipid Structure Cytoplasm and the Organelles Amphipathic molecule Cytoplasm Hydrophilic head – contains a phosphate Located outside the nucleus group and is attracted to water composed of jelly-like fluid that filled up the Hydrophobic tails – are nonpolar and entire cell repelled by water Viscous fluid containing organelles. Organized into a bilayer to form biological components of cytoplasm membranes Interconnected filaments & fibers Fluid =cytosol Organelles (not nucleus) storage substances Function: ✓ Cell Expansion ✓ Growth ✓ Metabolic activities - ✓ Cell replication Cytosol - the fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended Membrane Permeability particles. - The cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the The plasma membranes are selectively fluid portion of the cytoplasm that permeable. surrounds organelles and constitutes The cell is either permeable or impermeable about 55% of total cell volume to certain substances. - Cytosol is 75–90% water plus various The lipid bilayer is permeable to small, dissolved and suspended components. nonpolar, uncharged molecules (e.g. - Among these are different types of ions, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroids), glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, but impermeable to glucose. proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste products Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - The cytosol is the site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence Organelles - Little organs, specialized structures inside the cell. (e.g. cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes) Cytoskeleton - The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol - Protein Filaments: o Microfilaments – are the Endoplasmic Reticulum thinnest elements of the - a network or interconnected of tubes cytoskeleton. They are and flattened sacs composed of the proteins actin - extending in the entire cytoplasm and and myosin and are most channels prevalent at the edge of a cell. - membranous tube-like structure known They help generate movement as CISTERNAE and provide mechanical support - acts as transport vesicles to carry o Intermediate Filaments - thicker different substance than microfilaments but thinner - responsible for carbohydrates, protein, than microtubules lipids synthesis, modifies protein o Microtubules - largest of the materials cytoskeletal components and are - located around the nucleus long, unbranched hollow tubes - it also has a membrane composed mainly of the protein - Two types: tubulin. ✓ Rough Endoplasmic Parts of the Cells (Organelles) Reticulum (RER) - composed of network Ribosomes flattened membranous - small rounded dark bodies composed tubes containing of ribosomal proteins and ribonucleic ribosomes stud on the acids outer surface - usually floating around the - it is involved in cytoplasm, located in the entire cell and manufacturing protein some are found in the rough materials, protein folding, endoplasmic reticulum and sites of protein - they are bounded by a membrane but synthesis – the reason they are not membranes in structure why ribosomes are - they are the one that connect amino attached to it acids together to form long chains of ✓ Smooth Endoplasmic proteins Reticulum (SER) - are the builders of protein materials - it consists of network and responsible for protein synthesis tubular sacs that lacking - PROTEIN SYNTHESIZERS OF THE of ribosomes on its CELL surface Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - its function is responsible Mitochondria to detoxify drugs, - this is where most of the energy is released manufacturing lipids, in respiration carries carbohydrates, - POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL and non-protein materials - this is the location wherein energy is - looks like coral reefs produced by synthesis of Adenosine - no contribution to Triphosphate (ATP) proteins - Two layers of membranous sacs, the inside membrane is enfolding to form cristae and is enclosed by a matrix - a sausage shape like organelle is considered the site for cellular respiration, the conversion of energy originating from simple sugar and lipids into ATP energy - If the Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is used, it will be an Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) - Parts: o Outer Membrane – is the outer boundary of the mitochondria o Inner Membrane – is the interior of the mitochondria contains a series of doubled-layer membranous sheets called “cristae” o Matrix – refers to the aqueous compartment o Cristae – is the deep folds of the Golgi Apparatus inner mitochondrial membrane - processes and packages proteins from RER into vesicles - POST OFFICE OF THE CELL - made up stacks of flattened membranous sacs carrying the protein from rough ER to the outside of part of the cell - it contains enzymes that responsible to modify protein, packages, and secreted proteins Vacuole - stores nutrients and water - also stores cell waste - storage room of the cell - single membranous sac that plays important roles; o storage of materials and water Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 o releasing of cellular waste products Glycocalyx o conducts intercellular digestion - known as the CELL COAT that is located in o maintaining hydrostatic pressure the outer part of the cell membrane of - both plant and animal cells have a vacuole animal cell - in plants, the vacuole is large and it plays a - not present in plant cell vital role in turgor pressure and serves as a - function: storage of excess water to avoid swelling o recognition and cellular adhesion and bursting o responsible for tissue organization - in animals, the vacuole is small as it is only storage of excess food products Cytoskeleton Lysosome - it is the fundamental framework of the - digest large molecules using enzymes cytoplasm containing protein filament that - they are a key part of cell metabolism assists for the organelles to move inside - SCAVENGER OF THE CELL - microtubules (tube) and microfilaments - Membranous bag structure which contains (thin) composed of collective network strong hydrolytic enzymes and is used by protein filamentous, thread-like structures the cell to digest macromolecules which produce a strong ability to support - are single-membranous organelles that and maintain the cell shape worn-out the damaged parts, fuse with the - maintain the structures/organization of the lysosomes, and are broken down by nucleic organelles acids and some lipids - the digested products can be reused again by the cell for the synthesis of cellular materials - the programmed of cell destruction with the use of lysosomal enzymes is important in the process of cell development - avoid the cells from being crowded Plastids - largest, rounded membranous organelles that contain DNA - usually located in plant cell but not common in animal cell - for coloring pigments in the plant Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - a double-membranous structure enclosed - centrioles are mostly present in animal by a thylakoid membrane consists of cells but absent in plants even also fungi chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll - If two – centrosomes use by the plants for making their food - If by tube – centrioles through the process of photosynthesis - Major role: during cell division and cell - Different plastids and their coloring replication pigments - they produce spindle fiber where o Chloroplastids – green pigments chromosomes will be attached o Chromoplastids – red, yellow, and orange pigments ✓ Carotenoids ✓ Anthocyanin ✓ Anthoxanthin ✓ Xanthophyll o Leucoplastids – white and colorless pigment ✓ Amyloplasts – stored protein ✓ Proteinplasts – stored protein ✓ Elaioplasts – stored oil substance Nucleus Centrosomes and the Centrioles controls the cells' activities - Centrioles aid in cell division it contains genetic material including DNA - they maintain cell structure and intracellular not totally in the center (it is on the side) transport systems. the shape of the nucleus depends on the - Centrioles is a small, fibrous structure cell and cylindrical shape having a mass headquarters of the cell – contains the dense of protoplasm found near the hereditary information and controls all the nucleus. activities in the cell - it contains nine pairs of peripheral spherical/round shape, large structure, microtubules orthogonally arranged to and the most visible part that can be produce the wall of the cylinder. seen easily located near or at the central - inside the centrosome of an animal cell is a part of a cell pair of centrioles that replicate as the it regulates the cell activity due to the cell divides presence of enzymatic structures Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 also inside the nucleus there are for protein synthesis and carrying chromatin materials that contain hereditary traits. hereditary information to determine the traits of an organism from the process of cell division, the cell prepares and divides the chromatin to become short, coiled, and thick then condenses to convert into chromosomes in which DNA is formed Chromosomes - these are long thread stands associated with protein materials that suddenly coiled, and appear thicker, denser, and shorter when cells divide - it contains genetic materials known as DNA that are embedded inside the Nuclear Envelope chromosomes - two-membranous layered which surrounded - Chromatin – contains the DNA the entire nucleus and serve as a boundary - it is also a bounded protein that serves as to separates the nuclear material from the packaging for deoxyribonucleic acid cytoplasm. (DNA) and controls the hereditary - The nuclear membrane controls the characteristics continuous flow of materials inside and - 46 sets, 23 pairs outside the nucleus - autosomes – same in male and female - sex chromosomes – XX Females, XY Males Nucleoplasm - it is known as the nuclear sap containing a fluid substance that is suspended in the Other parts internal part forming the protoplasm of the nucleus. Flagella Nucleolus - are cytoplasmic projections that are made of two central and nine pairs of - a spherical shape made up of granular peripheral microtubules that extend from structures that are found inside the the surface of the cell nucleus containing ribosomal nucleic - covered by plasma membrane acid (RNA) which is rich in protein materials Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - many single-celled organisms use them for Solvent - a fluid or gas in which solute is being propulsion and other functions of dissolved. Ex: water flagella for cell locomotion Concentration - the amount of solute dissolved in - found in bacteria a given volume of solvent. It is also known as the Cilia mixture (when the solvent and solute are mixed together) - are relatively short projections that extend from the surface of the cell and allow the Concentration Gradient – the difference in materials to move on the surface of concentration of a substance between two areas. some tissues in the form of waves High concentration area and low concentration area - found in bacteria 1. Passive Transport - Does not require energy - Molecules move to equalize concentration - a substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion). - Kinetic energy is intrinsic to the particles that are moving. There is no input of energy from the cell. Diffusion (Simple Diffusion) Flagellum - process wherein solutes moves from an - can be compared to flagella area of high concentration to areas of low - sperm cell concentration. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) - found in human cell - is a passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a solution occurs Microvilli because of the particles’ kinetic energy. - found in male and female - is a passive process in which substances - found in organs, such as intestines move freely through the lipid bilayer of the - increase surface area of plasma membrane plasma membranes of cells without the help for absorption and secretion; modified form of membrane transport proteins. of sensory receptors - Small, nonpolar molecules can pass - extension of plasma membrane containing through the cell membrane (water microfilaments molecules, carbon, oxygen – can move - absorption of nutrients freely inside and outside the cells) - help in the continuous movement of mucus - Diffusion continues until a net equilibrium is inside the body reached - found in human cell - Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures Cell Transport - Diffusion is influenced by: Solute - a substance that is being dissolved in o Steepness of the concentration gradient various fluids. Ex: sugar and salt o Temperature o Mass of diffusion substance o Surface area Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 o Diffusion distance - The movement of water across the cell - Examples: membrane o Perfume diffuses across a room - Water moves from areas of lower solute o Sugar molecules dissolve in coffee to higher solute concentration o Dye diffuses through water - Into cell - Out of cell. - Target of the solvent is high- Facilitated Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane concentration (high solute) - Protein binds with molecule ✓ The tonicity of a solution relates to how the - Shape of protein changes solution influences the shape of body cells. - Molecule moves across the membrane 1. Isotonic Solution - Larger molecules enter the membrane - has equal water concentration across - Requires assistance of transmembrane the cell membrane. Cell functions proteins normally. - Molecules still move down the 2. Hypotonic Solution concentration gradient - inside has a high concentration, the - Used for molecules that cannot diffuse solvent will go in of the cell until it swells through the cell membrane, such as and bursts – lysed polar or ionic molecules 3. Hypertonic Solution ✓ Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion - outside has a high concentration, the (Protein Channel) solvent will go out of the cell until it - a solute moves down its concentration shrinks gradient across the lipid bilayer through a membrane channel ✓ Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion (Carrier Protein) - a carrier (also called a transporter) moves a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane - have a binding site 2. Active Transport Osmosis - Requires energy - The net movement of a solvent through - Molecular movement a selectively permeable membrane from - Solutes are transported across plasma an area of high concentration to an area membranes with the use of energy, from of low concentration. Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 an area of lower concentration to an - a form of endocytosis in which tiny area of higher concentration (e.g. droplets of extracellular fluid are taken Sodium-potassium pump). up - Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed - cell drinking by budding off from a membrane - membrane invagination brings in small amounts of fluid containing dissolved Sodium-Potassium Pump substances - Common example of primary active transport - Uses ATP to move 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell, against their concentration gradients Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane - Larger molecules - three types: receptor-mediated Exocytosis endocytosis; phagocytosis; bulk-phase - The process of a cell exporting material, endocytosis (pinocytosis) or cell secretion - STEPS: - Larger waste product Plasma membrane surrounds - Vesicle fuses with cell membrane material - Contents are released from cell Edges of membrane meet - Hormones and digestive enzymes Membranes fuse to form vesicle secreted this way ✓ Receptor-mediated endocytosis - vesicles fuse with the plasma - highly selective type of endocytosis by membrane, releasing their contents into which cells take up specific ligands. the extracellular fluid. Materials move Ligand binds to membrane receptor for out in the cell in a vesicles fuse with the cellular entry plasma membrane. ✓ Phagocytosis - a form of endocytosis in which the cell Transcytosis engulfs large solid particles, such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or virus. - a combination of endocytosis and - extends the cell membrane to bring in exocytosis; vesicles undergo large molecules endocytosis on one side of a cell, move ✓ Pinocytosis / Bulk-phase endocytosis across the cell, and then undergo exocytosis on the opposite side. Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Cell Cycle DNA: Adenine – Thymine Cell Theory Cytosine – Guanine You are a living organism, made of cells. ✓ Base pairs In order to keep living, your cells must stay ✓ nucleotides alive. In order for cells to keep living, they must divide and multiply RNA: Apoptosis – Programmed in our cells. Cell death. Adenine – Uracil Cytosine – Guanine Cancer cells – do not communicate. Continuously grow Structures of Chromosomes Phases of the Cell Cycle Homologous chromosomes - are made up of sister chromatids joined at the centromere. Interphase Haploid - A cell possessing a single copy of each - preparatory stage chromosome (human sex cells). - longest phase in the cell cycle - 90% of the total time required for the Diploid - A cell possessing two copies of each cell cycle chromosome (human body cells). - goes to a period of very high metabolic activity o chromosomes duplicate o many cell parts are made o cell does most of its growing G1 Phase – GAP 1 (gap between cell division and DNA synthesis) - Period before DNA synthesis begins - an increase in the supply of proteins - the number of cellular organelles – mitochondria, ribosomes, size of the cell Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - Cells undergo majority of growth. Mitosis - Usually the longest & most variable - thread movements phase of the cycle. - spindle fibers, microtubules, spindle - Increase in size and synthesize new tubules proteins and organelles in the cell. - all somatic/body cells will undergo S phase – SYNTHETIC PHASE (DNA mitosis synthesis or replication) - target product is two identical daughter - cell makes another copy of its cells chromosomes – DNA as well as the - 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, proteins attached to them Anaphase, Telophase - from the replication = sister chromatids – centromere Prophase: Formation of Mitotic Spindle - 6 to 8 hours - Each chromosome replicates - changes in both the nucleus and (synthesizes) to produce sister cytoplasm occur chromatids. o (Chromatin to Chromosome) o Attached at centromere ✓ duplicated chromosomes o Contains attachment site ✓ thin and threadlike (kinetochore) ✓ tightly coiled and folded - Characterized by DNA replication and ✓ appearing as short the beginning of centrosome duplication. ✓ thick and discrete G2 phase – GAP 2 (completion of DNA structures synthesis – start of actual cell division) o Nucleolus disappears - prepares the cell for chromosomal - in the cytoplasm separation o mitotic spindle (microtubules) – o synthesis of mitochondria and spindle poles ribosomes - nuclear envelope breaks into fragments o microtubules and protein o microtubules emerging form the ✓ mitotic spindle fibers centrioles reach the highly ✓ chromosomal condensed chromosomes and condensation attach to the protein structure – - Chromosomes condense kinetochore - Assemble machinery for division such as centrioles Metaphase: Alignment of Chromosomes - Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (imaginary plane) - spindle microtubules – pull the sister chromatids toward the center o centromere equidistant from each pole of the cell Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - M – MIDDLE Cytokinesis: Division of the Cytoplasm Anaphase: Movement of the Daughter - Final phase of cell division Chromosomes - division of the cytoplasm - Shortest stage/phase - starts in the late anaphase or the early - centromere of each chromosome divides telophase - two sister chromatids detach from each - occurs differently in plant and animal other cells - spindle microtubules shorten, pulling the detached sister chromatids - full-fledged chromosome – daughter cells - end – daughter chromosomes have moved – respective poles – complete set of chromosomes - A – AWAY Telophase: Formation of Two Daughter Cells Meiosis - begins – daughter chromosomes – opposite - sex cells end of the poles - gametes; sexual reproduction - formation of a nuclear envelope - target product is 4 haploid cells - the chromosome – uncoil and once again - Meiosis I and Meiosis II appear thread-like - ensures that all living organisms will - nuclear membrane reforms maintain both Genetic Diversity and Genetic - nucleoli appear Integrity - Cleavage furrow appear - During Meiosis gamete (sex) cells undergo - end a “double division”, maintaining the DNA, - mitotic spindles disappear but reducing the chromosomal count to 23 - equal division of one nucleus – two - Sperm (23) + Egg (23) = Fertilized Cell (46) identical daughter nuclei is completed - Meiosis facts: - T – TWO NUCLEI o Start with 46 double-stranded chromosomes (2n) o After 1 division -23 double-stranded chromosomes (n) Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 o After 2nd division -23 single-stranded chromosomes (n) Meiosis I: Prophase I - Beginning: o chromosomes become thick, visible, and tangled Meiosis I: Anaphase I o each pair consists of a total of four chromatids - homologous pairs of chromosomes - End: o separate from each other o nucleoli and nuclear envelope – - spindle fibers disappeared o pull members from each pair to o spindle fibers formed opposite ends - each individual chromosome o still consists of two sister chromatids - Crossing over: o very important event occurs during meiosis Meiosis I: Telophase I o exchange of genes ✓ between pairs of homologous - new nuclear envelope may or may not form chromosomes - cleavage furrow forms o only occurs during prophase I of - cytokinesis takes place meiosis o new cell is haploid o after crossing over ✓ one chromosome from each ✓ each chromosome in the pair homologous pair has a different combination of genes Meiosis I: Metaphase I Meiosis II: Prophase II - homologous chromosomes are still together - results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, - pairs of chromosomes each with half the number of chromosomes o arranged in the middle as the original Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 The Body Tissue Tissues are groups of cells with similar structures that function together in the body Meiosis II: Metaphase II Histology = microscopic study of the appearance, function, and organization of - chromosomes line up in a similar way to tissues the metaphase stage of mitosis Pathology = study of changes that occur with disease Group of cells – tissue – histology – pathologist Pathologist – “patho” means diseases. Physicians specialize in the laboratory of cells and tissues. Meiosis II: Anaphase II Abnormalities in tissues = leads to diseases - sister chromosomes separate and move (tumor, cancer, etc.) toward opposite ends of the cell What are the three cell layers called? According to Tortora, ectoderm – outer layer mesoderm – middle layer endoderm – inner layer Meiosis II: Telophase II - results in four haploid (N) daughter cells While cells continue to divide, they also form distinct properties through the process called differentiation. The Four Major Types of Tissues Epithelial tissue (Epithelium) Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - It forms coverings, linings, and glands ✓ they are long and oblong - This type of tissue covers surfaces, body - Transitional cavities, hollow organs, and ducts. Forms Based on the number of layers: glands, and lines body - Simple - Epi “lining, covering, and glands” ✓ one layer of cells - Stratified Connective tissue ✓ two or more layers of cells - It connects the organ - Pseudostratified - protection and support ✓ one layer of cells that appears like more Muscle tissue ✓ Pseudo “False” - It provides movement Nervous tissue - It allows communication Epithelial Tissue Form the boundary that separates us from the outside world. It gives the body the cover it needs Functions: ✓ Barrier – Protects against bacterial and chemical damage. Shield Simple Epithelium (1 Layer) ✓ Secretion – Secretion of glands that produce substances such as sweat, sebum(oil), digestive enzymes, and mucus. Releases fluid ✓ Absorption – The stomach and small intestines have epithelial tissues that absorb nutrients for the body. ✓ Protection ✓ Passage – Esophagus and trachea made up of epithelial tissue, which is the passage of air and food. Epithelial Tissue Simple Squamous Epithelium Based on shape: - Squamous - Found in the air sacs of the lungs, the ✓ flat cells lining of the heart, blood vessels, and ✓ looks like sunny side up egg or lymphatic vessels scales - Allows materials to pass through by - Cuboidal diffusion and filtration – it can easily pass ✓ box-shaped cells through diffusion because it is only a single- - Columnar thin layer (includes water molecules, ✓ column-like cells oxygen, and carbon and excludes large molecules). Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - Secretes lubricating substances Simple Columnar Epithelium - It is a single – thin flat layer - Located at the lines digestive and - Irregular shapes reproductive tracts - They look like sunny – side up eggs and fish - Secretes/releases mucus and absorbs scales various materials, such as digestive food, by active transport, diffusion, or facilitated diffusion - made up of large, single, and thin layers of cells - The nuclei are oblong and at the bottom, attached to the membrane Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - Located in the lines kidney tubules - Secretes and absorbs substances (Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), glucose, etc.) Pseudostratified epithelium (1 layer but appears - It is a one-layer cuboidal cell resting on a many) basement membrane - The nucleus is bigger than squamous cells - Some epithelial cuboidal cells have cilia or microvilli that move mucus over the surface Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium - Located at the lines of trachea and respiratory tract - Secretes and moves mucus - It looks like it has a lot of layers because of the position of the nucleus that has various depths, positions, and locations. Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 Stratified Epithelium (Multiple layer) Goblet Cells - Common feature of simple and pseudostratified epithelia - Secrete/release mucus - Lubricating mucus - Protects the lining of the intestines and the Stratified squamous epithelium digestive enzyme that completes the process of digestive food. - Located at the lines of the esophagus, - Goblet cells containing mucus mouth, and vagina - Protects against abrasion Mucus Stratified cuboidal epithelium - Used by your body to prevent damage - Used as protection, especially in the - Found in sweat glands and salivary glands airways to trap bacteria - Secretes and protects - Sebum (Oil) in the face is secreted to prevent bacteria from entering the face. Stratified columnar epithelium - Found in male urethra - Secretes and protects Transitional Epithelium Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - is a specialized stratified epithelium Cellular Connections found in the urinary bladder and the tubes that lead to it. - also called intercellular connections or cell - It can be greatly stretched junction - Layers are not identified - How cell connect or interact with the other - The layers and shape changes cells - If it is not stretched, the shape is cuboidal or - Most of the cells here are epithelial cells, columnar with 4 to 5 layers muscle cells, and nerve cells - If it is stretched, it is squamous in shape - perform different functions in different and the layer decreases. tissues - Urinary bladder – As it is filled with urine, - Every cell has a plasma membrane the urothelium gets thinner. If the urine is (signaling to communicate with the cells) out, this layer gets thicker again. - In the plasma membrane, there is a cell - If it is tissue, it is called urothelium – junction serves as a barrier to prevent urine from Cells can be connected by: leaking the urine out of your body. - Stomach also stretches. Tight junctions - Other examples: Ureters and Urethra - fuse membranes of adjacent cells - Cell membranes connect but the organelles do not - Impermeable layer – the area where the cells are connected. A way to connect the cells Desmosomes - provide strong, flexible connections between cells. - Connected through thread-like structures - It connects the cells across the space between the two cells. It holds the cell together and does not allow the transfer of molecules, substances, or ions. - The space allows the water and solutes to flow freely between the cells. - Hemidesmosomes connect cells to ECM Gap junctions (gap connections) Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - allow for intercellular passageways between cells Types of Connective Tissues Proper - the tubes that join cells create connections that allow the transport of water and ions - the tubes help in spreading the electrochemical signal 1. Loose Connective Tissue - generally holds organs, anatomic structures, and tissues in place. The extracellular matrix is the most significant feature of loose connective tissue with large spaces between fibers. - fewer fibers and more ground substance - matrix Extra Cellular Matrix Connective Tissue - A large network of proteins and other This type of tissue protects and supports molecules that surround, support, and give the body and its organs, binds organs structure to cells and tissues in the body. together, stores energy reserves as fat, The extracellular matrix helps cells attach and provides immunity to, and communicate with, nearby cells, and Connect cells plays an important role in cell growth, cell Fibers and other substances – matrix movement, and other cell functions. It has a rich supply of blood vessels Function: Areolar connective tissue Protection - is the type of tissue that connects and Enclosing and separating other surrounds different organs in the human tissues body. The important function of this type of Storing compounds tissue is that it provides nutrition to the cells Cushioning and insulating and also acts as a cushion to protect the Connecting tissues to one another organs from various external forces. Classification of Connective Tissues - Less fiber: Elastic and collagen - Present cell: Fibroblasts – produce matrix Adipose tissue Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Human Body BSN | 1ST YEAR | 1ST SEMESTER | 2024 - 2025 - is a loose, specialized connective tissue that cells called fibroblasts. Dense connective functions primarily in energy storage and tissue supports, protects, and holds bones,