Anatomy and Physiology Anaphy 111 Dash 8 PDF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ANAPHY 111 | DASH 8 ANAPHY AND PHYSIOLOGY WEEK 1 : THE HUMAN BODY 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY 1.1 ANATOMY  Anatom...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ANAPHY 111 | DASH 8 ANAPHY AND PHYSIOLOGY WEEK 1 : THE HUMAN BODY 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY 1.1 ANATOMY  Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. The word anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)  Studying anatomy involves structure of body parts, its microscopic organization, how each develops including its relationships and functions.  Surface Anatomy and Anatomical Imaging are yet another approach to anatomists. These two general ways examines a living person through its internal structures. For instance, Surface anatomy focuses study of external features like bony projections. On the other hand, Anatomical imaging utilizes different imaging samples like ultrasound and X-rays to evaluate internal structures.  The Chemical Level of organization deals with how different atoms like hydrogen and carbon interact to form molecules. In the Cell Level, 1.2 PHYSIOLOGY which is the basic unit of organisms, we try to  As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) notes, correlate how a molecular substance affects a Physiology deals with processes or functions living organism. of living things as an ever-changing organism. This is to aid in predicting body’s responses to  Tissues on the other hand are combined cells different stimuli and to understand how the that are similar. Their similarity in body maintains homeostasis. Therefore, characteristics and surrounding materials physiology is the science of body functions. determines its functions. As an overview, we (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) have epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve  Moreover, there are subdivisions of physiology tissues. When two or more tissue types work that focuses on different organizational level together to perform one or more functions, this such as cellular physiology and systemic will be called Organ. Examples of which physiology. For the human as a specific includes our heart and stomach, even our brain. organism, the study is called Human Physiology. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) 1.3 ORGANS SYSTEM OF THE BODY  cells specialize to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form tissues and organs. 6. Reproduction - is the ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs and continuity. 1.5 HEMEOSTASIS 1. A receptor monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a control center. 2. A control center receives the input, compares it to a set of values that the controlled 1.4 CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE condition should have (set point) and sends output commands (nerve impulses or chemical 1. Organization – living things are highly signals) to an effector. organized. They have specific interrelationships 3. An effector receives output commands and for it to perform functions essential for the produces a response that changes the living organism to thrive. In effect, any controlled condition. problems that affects its organization will greatly disrupt its function.  If a feedback system reverses the change in 2. Metabolism - is all of the chemical reactions the controlled condition to restore it to the set taking place in an organism. It includes the point, this is a negative feedback system. For ability of an organism to break down food example, a negative feedback system controls molecules, which are used as a source of blood pressure. However, if a feedback system energy and raw materials to synthesize the further strengthens a change in the controlled organism’s own molecules. It is the ability of condition, this is a positive feedback system the organism to use energy to perform  Negative feedback systems tend to maintain functions essential to growth, movement and stable conditions, whereas positive feedback even reproduction. systems tend to be unstable and must be shut 3. Responsiveness – is simply the capability to off by some event that is outside the feedback react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a loop, such as the delivery of the child. change. For instance, our body perspires a lot 1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PART whenever our temperature rises during hot weather. 4. Growth – an increase in number or length. In BODY POSITIONS - Descriptions of any part of the the human body, growth is an evidence when human body assume that the body is in a specific bones become larger as the number of bone stance called the anatomical position. In the cells increases. anatomical position, the body is upright. This 5. Development – occurs when an organism means that the subject stands erect with the head changes through time. Like the developmental level, eyes facing forward, feet at on the floor, and changes happening before birth, a human being directed forward, and arms at the sides, with the changes through time. Though growth signifies palms turned forward. However, two terms development, differentiation also embodies describe a reclining body. If the body is lying face development. Differentiation can be seen as a down, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying change in structure and function from a face up, it is in the supine position generalized to a specialized structures. For example, following fertilization, generalized BODY PARTS AND REGIONS - the central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUARANTS and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips). The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist.  The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. BODY PLANES BODY CAVITIES The body contains spaces - called cavities - that house the internal organs. The two major body cavities are the dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity. Each of these cavities is subdivided  Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal. Structure A cut through the long axis of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut at a right angle to the long axis is a transverse section, or cross section. If a cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle, it is called an oblique section.  A. Frontal section showing the parietal pericardium (blue), visceral pericardium (red), and SEROUS MEMBRANES pericardial cavity.  serous membranes lines trunk cavities and B. Frontal section showing the parietal pleura cover the organs of these cavities. They are (blue), visceral pleura (red), and pleural cavities. filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces thereby reducing friction. Figures C. Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic below will depict different serous membranes cavity showing the parietal peritoneum (blue), found in our body visceral peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity, mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal organs.  The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes. The parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall of the cavity, and the visceral part covers the internal organs. The serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the space between the parietal and visceral membranes.  The serous membranes protect organs from friction. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the pleural cavities surround the lungs, and the peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs.  Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs.  Retroperitoneal organs are found “behind” the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder are examples of retroperitoneal organs. WEEK 2 : THE CELL AND CELLULAR METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION 2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS  Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes our body with more than 100 trillion of it. Though very minute structures, these cells determine form and functions of the human body. No wonder why many disorders, through the advent of technology, can now be attributed to its cellular basis.  1. Cell metabolism and energy use – different 2.3 CELL MEMBRANE chemical processes during cell metabolism provides energy for muscle contraction and heat production 2. Synthesis of molecules – Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the same molecules. Therefore, the structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the types of molecules they produce. 3. Communication – Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that  cell membranes or plasma membranes are allow them to communicate with one like gatekeepers that manages which does another. For example, nerve cells and does not enter the cell. Its flexible communicate with one another and with barrier, which is made of two layers of muscle cells, causing muscle cells to phospholipids referred as lipid bilayer, contract. separates the inside and outside of the cell 4. Reproduction and inheritance – Each cell and controls the flow of substances. contain a copy of the genetic information of Associated with this lipid bilayer are the individual. Specialized cells (sperm phosphate-containing ends which made it cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic hydrophilic or attracted to water and the information to the next generation. fatty acid ends that are hydrophobic. 2.2 CELL STRUCTURE  To describe better, the double layer of phospholipids has a liquid quality. Cholesterol within the phospholipid  Most cells have three major portions, with the membrane gives it added strength and exception of the red blood cells. flexibility. Protein molecules “float” among the phospholipid molecules and, in some - The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, cases, extend from the inner to the outer defining boundaries with gate-like properties surface of the cell membrane. - The cytoplasm contains organelles and Carbohydrates may be bound to some molecules protein molecules, modifying their functions. The proteins function as - The nucleus, acts as the control center and membrane channels, carrier molecules, contains a cell’s genetic information. receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural supports in the membrane  Membrane channels and carrier molecules are involved with the movement of substances through the cell membrane. Receptor molecules are part of an intercellular communication system that enables cell recognition and coordination of the activities of cells. For example, a nerve cell can release a chemical messenger that moves to a muscle cell and temporarily binds to a receptor on the muscle cell membrane. The binding acts as a signal that NUCLEUS triggers a response, such as contraction of the  the nucleus is the large organelle usually muscle cell. found centrally. It important thing about this  barrier permits exchange of certain structure is that it carries the genetic material substances such as those substances found that contains information for cell activities and outside are called extracellular substances cell division. Some of its functions also while those inside the cell are termed as includes controlling the cell’s activities and intracellular substances. And because these cellular structure and produces ribosomes cell membranes work as a gatekeepers, they through its nucleoli. It has three distinct parts determine which moves in and out of the cell, namely nuclear envelope, nucleolus and proving its capability to have selective chromatin permeability.  In the body, cells more often have one nucleus but there are also some cell, like the skeletal 2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES muscle cells that contains more than one of  According to Thompson, (2015) the cytoplasm is this structure the gel-like substance that fills the space  The outer part of the nucleus is covered by two between the plasma membrane and the layers called the nuclear envelope which then nucleus. It consists of the intracellular fluid contains small openings termed as nuclear called cytosol and organelles. pores. Just like the cell membranes, these nuclear pores regulates movement of different  Cytosol consists of water plus dissolved ions, substances into and out of the cell proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, ATP, and  The nucleolus is a round structure that is made gases which provides the avenue for most of the DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleolus is chemical reactions to occur. While organelles also the one responsible for making ribosomes are considered to be the “little organs” found which contains small units of RNA inside the cytoplasm and are bound to perform  The nucleus carries all the information different tasks in cellular metabolism. necessary to control cell activities and make new cells. In a non-dividing cell, the genetic material is spread out in the form of chromatin, which encompass the last part of the nucleus. Whereas in a dividing cell, the genetic material is condensed into structures called chromosomes. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, which also consists of DNA and protein, can be found in the human cells.  RIBOSOMES  Ribosomes are made of RNA and proteins. These organelles are formed by the nucleolus and were sometimes associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum, some are located within mitochondria, and some are free- floating or termed as free-ribosomes. But whether free-floating or associated with organelles, ribosomes are involved in making new proteins.  Functions of the ribosomes includes being GOLGI APPARATUS AND SECRETORY VESICLE associated with the Endoplasmic reticulum so  The Golgi apparatus is like a flattened sacs they can synthesize proteins that are allocated that acts like a pathway for processing for the plasma membrane. The free ribosomes proteins and lipids made by the also synthesize proteins that are intended to be Endoplasmic Reticulum. It forms several used in the cytosol. things. It forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via ROUGH AND SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC exocytosis into extracellular fluid. It forms RETICULUM membrane vesicles that ferry new  The endoplasmic reticulum is a large molecules to the plasma membrane and membrane system that extends outward from lastly, it forms transport vesicles that carry the outer nuclear membrane throughout the molecules to other organelles, such as cytoplasm, There are two types: lysosomes.  Those that extends from the nuclear envelope and filled with ribosomes are the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These organelles synthesize glycoproteins and phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis.  On the other hand, Endoplasmic Reticulum without ribosomes is called Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. It is where fatty acids and steroids are being made. And more importantly, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum detoxifies harmful substances and serves as a storage site for ionized calcium, which gets released as part of an intracellular signal for muscle contraction and the actions of some chemical messengers called hormones. LYSOSOME AND PEROXISOMES Figure 2.6 Mitochondrion  Lysosomes have a number of digestive enzymes that break down ingested material and worn out organelles and release their components into the cytosol. It can digest the entire cells (autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes.   The enzymes within the lysosomes break down the materials in the endocytotic  The outer membrane gives a mitochondrion its vesicle. For example, white blood cells capsule shape while the inner membrane folds phagocytize bacteria. Then enzymes within on itself to provide a surface on which the lysosomes destroy the phagocytized energy-releasing chemical reactions of the cell bacteria. occur. The folds of the inner membrane are called cristae. It is on the cristae that cellular  Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles respiration occurs, where food (chemical containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, energy) is converted into another usable form amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen of chemical energy, ATP. For this reason, the peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino mitochondria are known as the powerhouses acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. The of the cell. On the other hand, the fluid that fills enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen the inside of the membrane is termed as peroxide to water and O2. Cells active in mitochondrial matrix. detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells, have many peroxisomes. CYTOSKELETON AND MICROTUBES MITOCHONDRION  These bean-shaped organelles are the major structures to produce Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell  Furthermore, it also participates in the regulation of intracellular ionized calcium. Each mitochondrion is composed of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane, which contain numerous enzymes that are involved in making ATP.  The cytoskeleton is made of networks of the following protein elements. It is like tree- branches that holds organelles in place and aid them in changing shape. These protein elements consist of microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules.  Microfilaments are small protein strands that provide mechanical support and generate force for movement. They are analogous to muscles in your body. They also anchor proteins within  ATP is the main energy source for most the plasma membrane and provide support for chemical reactions within the cell, and cells microvilli. Intermediate filament on the other with a large energy requirement have more hand are protein strands that are larger than mitochondria than cells that require less micro laments but smaller than microtubules. energy. For example, cells that carry out They hold organelles in place and attach cells extensive active transport, contain many to one another. Microtubules are long, hollow mitochondria. When muscles enlarge as a protein tubes that determine shape and result of exercise, the mitochondria increase in movement similar to the way bones shape your number within the muscle cells and provide the body. They are also the stiff components of cilia additional ATP required for muscle contraction. and flagella.  CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES a cell, flagella usually appears singular like in the sperm cells. Moreover, this structure allows cells to mobilize like again in the case of sperm cells that travels its way to find the egg cells. CELL TRANSPORT Intracellular fluid - inside the cell  sample substances that can be found are enzymes, glycogen and potassium ions Extracellular fluid - outside the cell Interstitial fluids – fluids between cell within tissue Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord As they move across cells and within the cells substances including gases, nutrients and ions are  Centrioles are like mini-tunnels that were dissolved in the various fluids. Certain terms in stacked together by threes (microtubule triplet) concentration also applies: and formed a cylindrical organelle composed Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the of nine triplets (figure 2.7). Putting a pair of various fluids these centrioles plus a pericentriolar material will make up a Centrosome is found near the Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is being nucleus and will be later essential for cell dissolved division called Mitosis. That is, the Concentration – the amount of solute dissolved in pericentriolar material of the centrosome given volume of solvent contains tubulins that build microtubules in nondividing cells and form the mitotic spindle Concentration Gradient – the difference in during cell division. concentration of a substance between two areas Cell membranes has the unique capability to only CILIA allow certain substances to pass through its  Cells may have numerous amounts of cilia in a walls—Selective Permeability. Because of this, cell. Cilia are hairy-like projections that coupled with the transport capacity, cells propels materials across the surface. They maintains its concentration of molecules. vary in number from hundreds to thousands. Movement of substances may include two For instance, the respiratory tract is lined with processes: cilia to trap foreign materials such as dust. In this way, it aids in maintaining airways clear Passive transport – no cellular energy required from contaminants. during transport. Examples includes diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion FLAGELLA Active transport – certain amount of cellular  Flagella on the other hand, is like a whip tail energy is needed to help transport to be placing itself at the terminal end of a cell. successful. Includes itself, secondary active Unlike cilia that were numerous to be found in transport, endocytosis and exocytosis  DIFFUSION Therefore, the water concentration  Diffusion is the process wherein solutes moves outside is greater than that inside, and water flows into the cell. from an area of high concentration to areas of HYPERTONIC The solute concentration outside the low concentration. It can occur in two cell is greater than the conditions. One, the membrane must be concentration inside the cell. permeable enough to allow passage of Therefore, the water concentration substances and two, there must be a is greater inside the cell than outside, and water concentration gradient of the particular flows out of the cell. substance across the membrane because it will be the driving force for the process to occur. CELL DIVISION OSMOSIS  Cells transport materials and make proteins as part of their normal functions. They grow and,  Osmosis involves the diffusion of water down at some point, divide to produce new cells. Cell the concentration gradient through a division is the way your body grows and how it selectively permeable membrane. In the body, replaces worn-out cells and cells damaged by this often happens when a particular substance disease or injury. can’t cross the membrane. In that situation, the water and not the particles, moves in an effort MITOSIS to equalize the concentration. Consists of four phases: PHROPHASE each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere. METAPHASE chromosomes align at the center of the cell. ANAPHASE chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles TELOPHASE the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed, producing two new daughter cells. MEIOSIS  Meiosis is very similar to mitosis. In fact, the two are so similar that their stages are rather confusingly referred to by the same names. ISOTONIC The solute concentration outside the cell is the same as that inside the cell. Therefore, water concentration is also the same on both sides of the cell, and the net movement of water is zero. HYPOTONIC The solute concentration outside the cell is less than the concentration inside the cell.  Classification of epithelial (shape) SQUAMOS Thin and flat cells that allow diffusion and filtration. Cube-shaped cells that may have microvilli at CUBOIDAL their apical surface for secretion or absorption COLUMNAR Tall and thin cells that may have microvilli or cilia at their apical surface for secretion and absorption TRANSITIONAL Change shape from flat to cuboidal and back. These cells are found in organs that can stretch like the urinary bladder. Classification of epithelial (cell layers) SIMPLE Has only one layer of EPITHELIUM cells and primary function is to move WEEK 3: materials THE TISSUES AND INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PSEUDOSTRATIFIED Has a single layer but EPITHELIUM appears to have many due to cells’ nuclei are 3.1 TISSUE AND HISTOLOGY placed at many levels STRATIFIED Has multiple layer of  Tissues were made from specialized cells that EPITHELIUM, cells and intended for were made during development and intended protection to group together to perform specific functions.  The science that deals with the study of tissues is called histology. CELL CONNECTION Most epithelial cells and some muscle and 3.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE nerve cells are tightly joined into functional Four basic types of tissues: units by points of contact between their plasma EPITHELIAL covers body surfaces, membranes called cell junctions. Cell junctions TISSUE forms glands, and lines perform different functions in different tissues: body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts. TIGHT JUNCTIONS fuse cells together CONNECTIVE protects and supports tightly to prevent TISSUE the body and its organs, substances from passing binds organs between together, stores energy the cells. reserves as fat, and ADHERENS have a dense layer of provides immunity. JUCTIONS proteins just inside the MUSCULAR generates the physical plasma membrane called TISSUE force needed to make a plaque that runs body structures move. along micro laments to NERVOUS TISSUE detects changes inside form a belt or strap-like and outside the body and structure called generates transmits nerve adhesion belt. impulses that DESMOSOMES are like adherens junctions, but the plaque binds to intermediate laments and does not form a belt.  HEMIDESMOSOMES resemble half of a desmosome. They don't adhere adjacent cells but rather attach cells to GAP JUCTIONS form channels that allow ions and molecules to pass between cells. GLANDS  A gland is made of glandular epithelial cells that secretes substances either in the surface or in the bloodstream. ENDOCRINE GLAND  ductless and secrete substance called EPIDERMIS hormones directly into the interstitial fluid then  Made from keratinized stratified squamous to the blood. epithelium, is a superficial, thinner portion of the skin that prevents water loss and resists EXOCRINE GLAND abrasion.  secrete substances through tubes or ducts. For instance, sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  There are many components of the integumentary system. This includes the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, and sensory receptors. 1. Protection - The skin serves as the primary defense against offending microorganisms. 2. Sensation - Receptors in the skin makes it possible for human organism to perceive pain, pressure as well as other sensations like FIVE LAYERS OF STRATUM temperature changes. 1. Stratum Basale - Also called as the 3. Vitamin D - The body needs Vitamin D to help stratum germinatitum, is the deepest layer synthesize calcium absorption, made possible that consists of columnar or cuboidal cells by the skin’s sufficient exposure to early aligned in single row. sunlight. 2. Stratum Spinosum - 8 to 10 layers of many 4. Temperature regulation - The amount of blood sided keratinocytes that closely together flow beneath the skin’s surface and the activity 3. Stratum Granulosum – Granulosum 3 to 5 of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate layers of flattened keratinocytes that are body temperature. undergoing apoptosis 5. Excretion - Small amounts of waste products 4. Stratum Lucidum - 4 to 6 layers of are lost through the skin and in gland flattened clear, dead keratinocyctes that secretions. contain large amounts of keratin 5. Stratum Corneum – 25 to 30 layer of  The skin is a multilayered organ that consists flattened dead cells from the deeper strata. of two main parts: Epidermis and Dermis The interior of the cells contains mostly keratin that aids in it natural strength DERMIS HAIR  Hair protects the skin and other structures of  Is the deeper, thicker and dense connective the body. Hairs or Pili, are found abundant in tissue portion. According to VanPutte, Regan, & almost every part of the body except for the Russo (2016), the dermis is responsible for palms and soles, lips, nipples and parts of the most of the skin's structural strength. genitalia SKIN COLOR  Skin color is caused by pigments such as melanin, hemoglobin and carotene. In the skin, melanin plays responsible for its pale yellow to reddish brown to black shade. As evident, melanin is quite abundant in moles and NAILS freckles and in certain areas of the body like  Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, the nipples and areola. keratinized cells of the epidermis. Functionally, nails help us grasp and manipulate small SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE objects, provide protection to the ends of the  Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is fingers and toes, and allow us to scratch the subcutaneous layer. This layer consists of various parts of the body. areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue. ACESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES  Hair, glands, and nails are accessory structures of the integumentary system that develop from the epidermis of the embryo.  gives them strength. Long bones include those of the arms, legs, fingers, and toes. It is covered by dense connective tissues on the outside called periosteum and a thinner inner lining called endosteum. Long bones have several parts. 1.1 Diaphysis - shaft or body 1.2 Epiphysis – head of each end of a long bone WEEK 4 : THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 1.3 Medullary cavity – marrow cavity or space that contains yellow marrow 4.1 STRUCTURE AND SKELETAL TISSUES 2. Short bones - are equal in length and width, making them nearly cube-shaped. Examples include most bones of the ankles and the wrists. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 3. Flat bones - are thin and provide both protection  The extracellular matrix contains substances and surfaces for muscle attachments. The bones of that are essential for the make-up of our bones the skull, sternum, and ribs are all at bones. since the cartilages, tendons, ligaments, and even our bones, are connective tissues. For 4. Irregular bones - have complex shapes, such as instance, collagen, as one of the substances, is those of the face and vertebral column. a tough and rope-like protein giving our tendons, ligaments and cartilages great amount of strength like steel bars reinforced in a concrete. The mineral component, like the concrete itself, gives the bone compression like weight-bearing strength. Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatite.  Proteoglycans on the other hand, are large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to core proteins, similar to the way needles of a pine tree are attached to the tree’s branches. The proteoglycans form large aggregates, much as pine branches combine to form a whole tree. Proteoglycans can attract and retain large amounts of water between their polysaccharide “needles.” CLASSIFICTION OF BONES 1. Long Bone - are longer than they are wide and have knobby ends where the articulations form. Long bones are hollow in the middle and more solid on ends. At each ends also includes a thin layer of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage, which further articulates it other bones to form a joint. Their slightly curved structure  FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES  Support the body  Protection of soft organs  Movement due to attached skeletal muscles  Storage of minerals and fats  Blood cell formation TWO BASIC TYPE OF BONE TISSUE -compact bone  homogenous -spongy needle-like pieces of bone  small needle-like pieces of bone  many open spaces THE SKULL  two sets of bones  cranium  facial bones  bones are joined by suture  only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint BONE GROWTH  Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood  New cartilage is continuously formed  Older cartilage becomes ossified  Bone replaces cartilage  Bones change shape somewhat  Bones grow in width BONES OF THE SKULL AXIAL SKELETON - Forms the longitudinal part of the body - divided into three parts  skull  vertebral column  bony thorax  HUMAN SKULL (SUPERIOR VIEW) BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB  humerus  ulna  radius the hand:  carpal – wrist  metacarpals – palm  phalanges – fingers BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB  femur (thigh bone)  tibia  fibula the foot: HUMAN SKULL (INFERIOR VIEW)  tartus – ankle  metatarsals – sole  phalanges – toe good luck, my dearest dash 8!! - presi yel