Anatomy & Physiology (Lab) – Prelims PDF

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 1: INTRO TO ANATOMY HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 1  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 1: INTRO TO ANATOMY L...

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 1: INTRO TO ANATOMY HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 1  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 1: INTRO TO ANATOMY LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Six levels from chemical to organism: 1. Chemical: smallest level atoms, chemical bonds, molecules 2. Cellular: cells: basic units of life compartments and organelles examples of organelles: mitochondria, nucleus 3. Tissues: group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substances they release four broad types: Epithelial Connective Muscular Nervous 4. Organs: two or more tissue types acting together to perform function(s) Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney BODY PLANES 5. Organ-System: Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left group of organs contributing to some function parts for example, digestive system, reproductive Parasagittal system Midsagittal 6. Organism: Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that all organ systems working together divides body into equal left and right halves includes associated microorganisms such as Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates intestinal bacteria the body into superior and inferior parts. Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates the body ANATOMICAL POSITION into anterior and posterior parts. “SHAFT” DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superior: above Inferior: below Anterior: front (also: ventral) Posterior: back (also: dorsal) DIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral (belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior and posterior in humans Medial: close to midline Lateral: away from midline Proximal: close to point of attachment Distal: far from point of attachment Superficial: structure close to the surface Deep: structure toward the interior of the body *study the organs (at least one) found in each region and quadrant HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 2  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 1: INTRO TO ANATOMY Additional Notes: BODY CAVITIES Dorsal Body cavity: Encloses the organs of the nervous system Cranial cavity: Contains the brain Vertebral cavity/canal: Contains the spinal cord Ventral Body cavity: Contains the majority of internal organs (viscera) Divided into: Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Thoracic cavity: space within chest wall and diaphragm contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea Mediastinum: space between lungs contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea Abdominal cavity: space between diaphragm and pelvis contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys Pelvic cavity: space within pelvis contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, part of large intestine SEROUS MEMBRANES HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 3  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 2: CELLS ORGANELLES Phospholipids form a bilayer. - Specialized structures in cells that perform Phospholipids contain 2 regions: specific functions a. ______________ (hydro__________) - Examples: b. ______________ (hydro__________) o ____________ - Polar region: o ____________ o o ____________ CYTOPLASM - Nonpolar region: - o PLASMA MEMBRANE - Also called _______________________ MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE - A structure that encloses the cytoplasm - Cell membrane type of permeability: _________________________________ FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (allows only certain substances to pass) 1. - Substances found in higher concentration inside the cell: o _______________ 2. o _______________ o _______________ 3. - Substances found in higher concentration outside the cell: 4. o _______________ o _______________ o _______________ 5. GENERAL CELL STRUCTURE - Interior of cell is composed of a jelly-like CELL MEMBRANE substance that surrounds the organelles: - The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the _______________ component of a ___________________________________ cell. - It forms a boundary between material in - Specialized structures that perform certain inside the cell and the outside. functions are called ORGANELLES: - Materials inside the cell are____________ o _______________ and those outside are ______________ o _______________ - It acts as a selective barrier. o _______________ STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE o _______________ The ________________ is the model used o _______________ to describe the cell membrane structure. The membrane contains: o _______________ _________________________ o _______________ _________________________ o _______________ _________________________ _________________________ o _______________ HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 4  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 2: CELLS The _______________ is involved in protein NUCLEUS synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes. - The nucleus is a large organelle usually The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes located near the center of the cell. and is a site for: - The nucleus is bounded by _____________________ __________________________________, which consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow space between _____________________ them. - The nuclear membrane contains _____________________________ __________________________________, through which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus. GOLGI APPARATUS - Also called _______________________ - The nuclei of human cells contain - consists of closely packed stacks of curved, __________________ of chromosomes membrane-bound sacs. which consist of DNA and proteins. - Function: - During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes o are loosely coiled and collectively called ________________________________ - When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are - Forms vesicles, some of which are: visible when viewed with a microscope. o ______________ vesicles - Within the nucleus are _____________, o _____________________ which are diffuse bodies with no surrounding o And other vesicles membrane that are found within the nucleus - There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus. LYSOSOMES - The subunits of _____________________, a - Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed formed from ____________________ within a nucleolus. - They contain a variety of enzymes that - These ribosomal components exit the function as intracellular digestive systems. nucleus through ____________________ - Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles. RIBOSOMES - One example is: Ribosome components are produced in the o ________________ Ribosomes are the organelles where ______________ are produced. PEROXISOMES Ribosomes may be attached to other - Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles, such as the vesicles containing enzymes that break _______________________________ down: Ribosomes that are not attached to any other o ________________________ organelle are called __________________ o ________________________ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM o ________________________ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series - Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of of membranes forming sacs and tubules that ___________________ and extends from the outer nuclear membrane ___________________ breakdown and can into the cytoplasm. be toxic to a cell. HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 5  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 2: CELLS - The enzymes in peroxisomes break down ________________ MICROFILAMENTS Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the MITOCHONDRIA cytoplasm, determining cell shape. - Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are Some microfilaments are involved with cell small organelles responsible for producing movement. considerable amounts of ________ by Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the aerobic metabolism cells to shorten, or contract. - They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space. - Outer membrane: _________________ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS - Inner membrane: _________________ - Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from (called ____________) which project into the protein subunits that are smaller in diameter interior of the mitochondria than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments. - The material within the inner membrane is - Function: the _______________________ and contains enzymes and ______________________ (mtDNA). - Cells with a large energy requirement have - A specific type of intermediate filament is more mitochondria than cells that require _______________, a protein associated with less energy. skin cells. CYTOSKELETON Function: CENTRIOLES The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs. It contains ____________________, which It consists of protein structures that: are normally oriented perpendicular to each _________________________ other. _________________________ Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of ________________ _________________________ The centriole is involved in the process of These protein structures are: __________________ 1. ______________________________ 2. ______________________________ 3. ______________________________ CILIA Cilia project from the surface of certain cells. MICROTUBULES Function: - Microtubules are hollow structures formed from ______________________ - The microtubules perform a variety of roles: o ________________________ Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend o ________________________ from the cell and are composed of _________________ o ________________________ such as ______________& ______________ HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 6  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 2: CELLS FLAGELLA GENE EXPRESSION - Flagella have a structure similar to that of Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, cilia but are much longer, and they usually involves: occur only one per cell. _____________________ - Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which ______________________ ________________________ ________________ : involves copying DNA into messenger RNA. MICROVILI ________________ : involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein. - Structure: CELL CYCLE During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of cells or - Function: replace damaged or dying ones. This cell division involves a cell cycle. The cell cycle includes two major phases: _______________ (nondividing phase) _________________ (cell dividing - They do not actively move as cilia and phase) flagella do. - They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the: INTERPHASE o ____________________ - Divided into 3 phases: o ____________________ 1. __________________ o ____________________ Description: in which absorption is an important function. 2. __________________ Description: DNA - DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called 3. ___________________ ________________________________ Description: - A DNA molecule consists of At the end of interphase, a cell has 2 complete sets _________________ joined together to form of genetic material two nucleotide strands. - The two strands are connected and CELL GENETIC CONTENT resemble a ladder that is twisted around its - Each human cell (except sperm and egg) long axis. contains ___________________ (Total: ) - Each nucleotide consists of - The sperm and egg contain 23 o __________________________ chromosomes total. o __________________________ - One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes o __________________________ o Female: __________ o Male: __________ - Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the opposite strand. - ____________: a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for making a specific protein. HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 7  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 2: CELLS MITOSIS (CELL DIVISION) Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells APOPTOSIS from a single parent cell. Apoptosis, termed ___________________, Mitosis is divided into four phases: is a normal process by which cell numbers 1. _____________________ within various tissues are adjusted and controlled. 2. _____________________ In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the 3. _____________________ developing fingers and toes. In some adult tissues: 4. _____________________ _____________________________ PROPHASE _____________________________ - ________________: condenses to form visible chromosomes - ________________ : microtubules which form to assist in breaking the centromere between the chromatids and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell - ______________: dissolves during this phase METAPHASE During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell. The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle fibers. ANAPHASE - _____________ : separate at the beginning of anaphase; each chromatid is called a ________________ - Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of the cell. - At the end of anaphase, o ______________________ o ______________________ - (+) _____________________ TELOPHASE During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to form _______________________, one in each newly formed daughter cell. The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during __________________ Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed – producing ________________ HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 8  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES TISSUE FUNCTION A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and - Diffusion, filtration, some secretion, and some function, plus the extracellular substance surrounding protection against friction them. Histology is the study of tissues. There are four tissue types in the human body: 1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue 2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the body 3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making movement possible 4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities EPITHELIAL TISSUE Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body. Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according to the number of cell layers and the shape of the STRUCTURE superficial cells. The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or Single layer of cube-shaped cells; some cells have microvilli pseudostratified. (kidney tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles of the lungs) The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, or a special transitional shape, that varies with the degree of stretch. LOCATION Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexuses of the brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs, and surfaces of SIMPLE EPITHELIUM consists of a single layer of cells, with the ovaries each cell extending from the basement membrane to the free surface. STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches the deepest layer to the FUNCTION basement membrane. Secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney tubules; PSEUDOSTRATIFIED columnar epithelium is a special type of secretion by cells of glands and choroid plexuses; movement of simple epithelium, that appears to be falsely stratified. particles embedded in mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells ciliated cells attached to the basement membrane. Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the epithelia appears stratified. BASED ON SHAPE 1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike. 2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as wide as they are tall. 3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are wide. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM STRUCTURE - Single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells; the nuclei SIMPLE COLUMNAR appear as bumps when viewed in cross section because the cells are so flat STRUCTURE Single layer of tall, narrow cells; some cells have cilia LOCATION (bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) - In the lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows for or microvilli (intestines) gas exchange. - In the kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps filter wastes from the blood while keeping blood cells inside LOCATION the blood vessels. Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, - lining of serous membranes of body cavities (pleural, uterus, uterine tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile pericardial, peritoneal)z ducts, and ventricles of the brain HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 9  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES FUNCTION Movement of particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells; partially responsible for the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells; secretion by cells of the glands, the stomach, and the intestines; absorption by cells of the intestines PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR STRUCTURE the cells are almost always ciliated and are associated with goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the free surface TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM LOCATION Lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs STRUCTURE Stratified cells that appear cuboidal when the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ or tube is stretched FUNCTION by fluid Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface and move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the surface of the free surface and from passages LOCATION Lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and superior urethra FUNCTION Accommodates fluctuations in the volume of fluid in an organ or a tube; protects against the caustic effects of urine STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS STRUCTURE ; the epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized; - in nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, the surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm; - in keratinized stratified epithelium, the cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a protein called keratin, and the cells are dead CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type that LOCATION makes up part of every organ in the body. Keratinized—outer layer of the skin; - Connective tissue differs from the other three tissue nonkeratinized—mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, types in that it consists of cells separated from each vagina, inferior urethra, and corneas other by abundant extracellular matrix. FUNCTION Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and osteoclasts break it down. Protects against abrasion, forms a barrier against infection, and Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective reduces loss of water from the body tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it. Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it. Macrophages are large cells that are capable of moving about and ingesting foreign substances, including microorganisms in the connective tissue. HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 10  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE such as histamine, that promote inflammation. White blood cells (immune system) STRUCTURE - The two main types of connective tissue are Fine network of reticular fibers irregularly arranged embryonic and adult connective tissue. LOCATION Within the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE FUNCTION STRUCTURE Provides a superstructure for lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues A fine network of fibers (mostly collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers) with spaces between the fibers; fibroblasts, macrophages, and lymphocytes are located in the spaces LOCATION Widely distributed throughout the body; substance on which epithelial basement membranes rest; packing between glands, muscles, and nerves; attaches the skin to underlying tissues FUNCTION Loose packing, support, and nourishment for the structures with TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE which it is associated Dense collagenous connective tissue has an extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen fibers. Dense collagenous connective tissue having the collagen fibers oriented in the same direction is termed dense regular. Examples of dense regular are tendons and ligaments. Dense collagenous connective tissue having the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple directions is termed dense irregular. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis of the skin and in organ capsules. STRUCTURE Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells; the adipocytes, or DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS CONNECTIVE fat cells, are so full of lipid that the cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell STRUCTURE Matrix composed of collagen fibers running in somewhat the LOCATION same direction in tendons and ligaments; collagen fibers run in Predominantly in subcutaneous areas, mesenteries, renal several directions in the dermis of the skin and in organ capsules pelves, around kidneys, attached to the surface of the colon, mammary glands, and in loose connective tissue that penetrates LOCATION into spaces and crevices Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (attach bones FUNCTION to each other); also found in the dermis of the skin, organ Packing material, thermal insulator, energy storage, and capsules, and the outer layer of many blood vessels protection of organs against injury from being bumped or jarred FUNCTION Withstand great pulling forces exerted in the direction of fiber orientation due to great tensile strength and stretch resistance HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 11  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC CONNECTIVE FIBROCARTILAGE STRUCTURE STRUCTURE Matrix composed of collagen fibers and elastin fibers running in Collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline cartilage; the fibers somewhat the same direction in elastic ligaments are more numerous than in other cartilages and are arranged in thick bundles LOCATION Elastic ligaments between the vertebrae and along the dorsal LOCATION aspect of the neck (nucha) and in the vocal cords; also found in Intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, and articular disks (e.g., elastic connective tissue of blood vessel walls knees and temporomandibular [jaw] joints) FUNCTION FUNCTION Capable of stretching and recoiling like a rubber band with Somewhat flexible and capable of withstanding considerable strength in the direction of fiber orientation pressure; connects structures subjected to great pressure ELASTIC CARTILAGE CARTILAGE STRUCTURE - Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located in Similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also contains elastic fibers spaces called lacunae within an extensive matrix. - There are three types of cartilage: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage. LOCATION - Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of External ears, epiglottis, and auditory tubes cartilage and has many functions, such as covering the ends of bones, where they form joints. FUNCTION Provides rigidity with even more flexibility than hyaline cartilage HYALINE CARTILAGE because elastic fibers return to their original shape after being stretched STRUCTURE Collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed in the matrix, BONE making the matrix appear transparent; the chondrocytes are - Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and found in spaces, or lacunae, within the firm but flexible matrix compact bone. Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae or LOCATION plates, of bone and therefore resembles a sponge. Growing long bones, cartilage rings of the respiratory system, Compact bone is more solid, with almost no space costal cartilage of ribs, nasal cartilages, articulating surface of between many thin layers of mineralized matrix. bones, and the embryonic skeleton FUNCTION STRUCTURE Allows growth of long bones; provides rigidity with some Hard, bony matrix predominates; many osteocytes flexibility in the trachea LOCATION All bones of the body FUNCTION Provides great strength and support and protects internal organs, such as the brain; bone also provides attachment sites for muscles and ligaments; the joints of bones allow movements HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 12  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES CARDIAC MUSCLE Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for pumping blood. STRUCTURE Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and striated and have a single nucleus; LOCATION BLOOD Heart FUNCTION STRUCTURE Pumps the blood; under involuntary (unconscious) control liquid connective tissue It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, along with formed elements. LOCATION Within the blood vessels; white blood cells frequently leave the blood vessels and enter the extracellular spaces FUNCTION Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, nutrients, waste products, and other substances; protects the body from infections and is involved in temperature regulation MUSCLE The main function of muscle tissue is to contract, or shorten, making movement possible. The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, SMOOTH and smooth. STRUCTURE SKELETAL MUSCLE Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, are not striated, and have a single nucleus STRUCTURE LOCATION Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear striated (banded); cells are large, long, and cylindrical, with many nuclei In hollow organs, such as the stomach and intestine; skin and eyes LOCATION FUNCTION Attached to bone or other connective tissue Regulates the size of organs, forces fluid through tubes, controls the amount of light entering the eye, and produces “goose FUNCTION bumps” in the skin; under involuntary (unconscious) control Movement of the body; under voluntary control NERVOUS TISSUE STRUCTURE neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body, and a long axon; glia, or support cells, surround the neurons LOCATION brain, spinal cord, and ganglia FUNCTION Neurons transmit information in the form of action potentials, store information, and integrate and evaluate data; glia support, protect, and form specialized sheaths around axons HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 13 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 3: TISSUES HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 14  COMPOUND MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE The microscope is one of the principal tools of the biologist. It was invented through the efforts of Dutch scientist Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. A. Identification of the Microscope Parts Ocular or eyepiece. It is where you look into when examining objects in the microscope. Inserted into the draw tube, it contains lenses to increase magnification. Draw tube. A cylindrical part where the eyepiece is inserted. Body tube. The barrel which holds the lenses of the eyepiece and objectives at a proper distance from each other. Coarse adjustment knob. A large wheel which moves the body tube up or down to bring the specimen into focus. It is used when the low power objective is in place. Fine adjustment knob. A smaller wheel which brings the specimen to its sharpest focus by moving the body tube up or down very slightly. Dust shield. A rounded metal directly attached to the end of the body tube which protects the objectives from dust. Revolving nosepiece. The bottom end of the body tube where the objectives are attached. It rotates to allow changing from one objective to another. Objectives. Small tubes attached to the nosepiece which contain lenses of different magnifications. The objective marked 10x is the low power objective (LPO). Sometimes a much shorter objective marked 4x or 5x may be present; this is known as the scanning objective. The high power objective (HPO) is the one marked 40x (44x or 45x in some models). More advance microscope models also have the oil immersion objective (100x). Stage. The flat area where the slide to be examined is placed. Stage aperture. The hole or opening at the center of the stage. It admits light from the mirror. Stage clips. Two pieces of metal which holds the slide in place. Arm. Supports the body tube and is used for carrying the microscope. Mirror. Directs reflected light through the stage aperture to light the specimen in the slide. It usually has a concave and flat surface. The concave surface is used especially when the microscope does not have a condenser. (The condenser is a series of lenses below the stage that helps focus light on the specimen). If a condenser is present, the flat-surfaced mirror may be used. In some microscopes, a lamp provides the light source instead of the mirror. Pillar. The upright bar which provides support and connects the base with the other part of the microscope, Diaphragm. Regulates the amount of light passing through the specimen. The diaphragm may be in the form of a rotating disk with holes of various sizes, or it may have an adjustable iris opening. In the latter case, it is known as an iris diaphragm. Inclination joint. Allows the microscope to be inclined at an angle. Base. The horseshoe-shaped bottom part of the microscope which supports the whole structure. HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 15  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 4: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM STRATUM CORNEUM The integumentary system consists of the skin and accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails. most superficial stratum of the epidermis, consists of Integument means covering. dead squamous cells filled with keratin. Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural strength. (+) waterproof characteristic Protection against infection and injury STRATUM LUCIDUM Responsible for the transparent or lucid appearance of skin (+) Eleidin protein Not all parts of the skin possesses this layer Abundant in palms, soles, lips (+) gripping ability STRATUM GRANULOSUM Responsible for: SKIN o Water retention & heat retention The skin is made up of two major tissue layers: the epidermis and the dermis. STRATUM SPINOSUM The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin. “spiky layer” or “prickle cell layer” o It is a layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the Protects the basal layer dermis. The dermis is a layer of dense connective tissue. o The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue, STRATUM BASALE which is a layer of connective tissue. Other name: Stratum Germinativum The subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin. Site of cell proliferation/renewal (+) MELANOCYTES EPIDERMIS (LAYERS/STRATA) (+) KERATINOCYTES EPIDERMIS (CONTINUATION) Dandruff = excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells from the surface of the scalp Callus = thickened area produced when the skin is subjected to friction Corn = cone-shaped structure when the stratum corneum thickens over a bony prominence DERMIS type of tissue: dense collagenous connective tissue also called “Corium” or “true skin” HYPODERMIS also called “subcutaneous tissue” or “subdermis” type of tissue: loose connective tissue SKIN COLOR The epidermis, known as the cutaneous membrane, The two primary pigments are melanin and carotene is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Melanin is the group of pigments primarily responsible The epidermis is composed of distinct layers called for skin, hair, and eye color. strata. o Eumelanin = black/brown pigment STRATA; from superficial to deep: o Pheomelanin = yellow/red pigment o Stratum CORNEUM Melanocytes = cells that produce melanin o Stratum LUCIDUM Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants such as o Stratum GRANULOSUM squash and carrots. o Stratum SPINOSUM o Carotenemia: yellow pigmentation of the skin o Stratum BASALE due to increased carotene in the blood Mnemonic: “Cu Lu Go Sa Batok” Albinism = inability to produce melanin causing light hair, skin, eyes HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 16  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 4: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Pallor = paleness of the skin due to decreased blood ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE flow Cyanosis = bluish color of the skin due to decreased Small muscle attached to hair follicle oxygen in the blood Responsible for giving “piloerection” or “goosebumps” SKIN CANCER GLANDS Most common cancer Major Classification: Mainly caused by UV light exposure Sebaceous Glands UVA rays cause tan and is associated with Sweat glands malignant melanomas; longer wavelength UVB rays cause sunburns; shorter wavelength SEBACEOUS GLANDS simple, branched acinar glands associated with hair follicles TYPES OF SKIN CANCER SEBUM: oily white substance produced by sebaceous A. Basal cell carcinoma: glands; rich in lipids cells in stratum basale affected o Function: lubrication of the hair and surface of cancer removed by surgery skin B. Squamous cell carcinoma: cells above stratum basale affected SWEAT GLANDS can cause death Not associated with hair follicles C. Malignant melanoma: 2 types: arises from melanocytes in a mole A. Eccrine rare type o Also called “Merecrine” glands can cause death o Numerous in palms and soles B. Apocrine o Active at puberty o Odorless secretion NAILS NAIL BODY: visible part of the nail NAIL ROOT: part of the nail covered by skin CUTICLE **** study this :) o Also called “eponychium” LUULA: crescent-shaped HAIR area at the base of the nail HAIR FOLLICE: invagination of the epidermis that extends SENSORY RECEPTORS deep into the dermis HAIR SHAFT: protrudes above the surface of the skin HAIR ROOT: below the surface of the skin HAIR BULB: expanded base of the root Layers of Hair: CUTICLE: covers the cortex; a single layer of overlapping cells CORTEX: hard middle layer of the hair MEDULLA: softer center of hair Mnemonic: “Cu Co Melon” HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 17  ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (LAB) – PRELIMS LESSON 4: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM BURNS How are they classified? o “Rule of Nines” o Total Body Surface Area (TBSA) Adult: Baby: *Study how to compute the total area covered in burns FIRST-DEGREE BURNS “superficial burns” Involves only the dermis Red and painful Ex. Sunburn SECOND-DEGREE BURNS Partial-thickness burn Damages the epidermis and some of the dermis Red, panful, has blisters and edema (swelling) THIRD-DEGREE BURNS Full-thickness burn Damages the whole epidermis and dermis Painless o Why? Sensory receptors are already destroyed Ex. Chemical burns HANDOUTS BY: MR. JODEL BENEDICT G. BARREDO, PTRP 18