ANPH 111 - Anatomy and Physiology - Final Exam

vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Stomach TOPIC OUTLINE Small intestines...

vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Stomach TOPIC OUTLINE Small intestines Large intestine A. Gastrointestinal System ➔ Cecum with vermiform appendix B. Urinary System ➔ Ascending colon C. Reproductive System ➔ Transverse colon D. Endocrine ➔ Descending colon E. Senses ➔ Sigmoid colon (pelvic colon) ➔ Rectum ➔ Anal canal GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Accessory Organs/Glands Composed of organs whose primary functions are ingestion, Lips digestion, absorption of food and excretion of undigested food Teeth Includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and Tongue large intestines and the accessory digestive organs (Salivary Salivary glands glands, Liver, pancreas and gall bladder) ➔ Big o Parotid Histologic Characteristics o Submandibular walls of the digestive tract composed of the following: o Sublingual Tunica Mucosa ➔ Small Functions: absorptive, secretory, and protective consist of the ff: o Lingual ➔ Epithelium o Labial o all are lined by simple columnar o Buccal o except mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and lower anus which Liver are lined by stratified sq. non keratinized Gall bladder ➔ Lamina propria Pancreas o loose areolar tissue ➔ Muscularis mucosa Mouth (Oral Cavity) o made up of smooth muscles Oral Vestibule Submucosa Space bounded anteriorly by lips and cheeks Major function is nutritive and protective Connective tissue Posteriorly by teeth and gums consisting of the ff: Oral Cavity Proper ➔ Blood vessels Space bounded by gums and teeth ➔ Lymphatics Floor is the tongue ➔ Nerves Roof is the hard and soft palate Tunica Muscularis Teeth Usually 2 layers of smooth muscles, inner circular and outer Two sets of teeth: longitudinal muscle layer ➔ Deciduous teeth, or temporary (milk) Stomach has 3 layers of tunica muscularis, inner oblique, middle o The deciduous teeth erupt on the average between 6 and circular and outer longitudinal muscle layer 24 months after birth and are usually shed between the Tunica Serosa ages of 6 and 12 Visceral peritoneum o The deciduous set consists of 20 teeth, 5 in each quadrant: It is a single layer of simple squamous epithelium which 2 incisors, 1 canine, and 2 molars. secretes a small amount of serous lubricating fluid which ➔ Permanent teeth reduces friction among the GI tract organs and the body wall o Eruption of the third molars, or wisdom teeth, is delayed until after the age of 18 Major Divisions Of Digestive System o There are 32 permanent teeth in a full set, 8 in each quadrant: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars. Digestive Tract Tongue Oral cavity Organ for speech and mechanical digestion of food Pharynx Contains various types of papillae: ➔ Oropharynx ➔ Vallate Papillae: Largest; located near the sulcus terminalis, ➔ laryngopharynx dividing the tongue into the anterior two-thirds and posterior Esophagus one-third. 1/3 vellichor 1 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Foliate Papillae: Found on the sides of the tongue, primarily digestive and respiratory function for taste. ➔ Fungiform Papillae: Mushroom-shaped, scattered across Esophagus the tongue's surface, involved in taste. a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach ➔ Filiform Papillae: Most numerous, slender and cone- three anatomical constrictions shaped, providing texture and aiding in food manipulation but ➔ at the pharyngo-esophageal junction lacking taste buds. ➔ when left main bronchus crosses esophagus o this will contain Taste buds except filiform: sensory organs of taste especially numerous around vallate papillae ➔ when it enters the diaphragm Nerves of the tongue ➔ General Sensory – touch Stomach o lingual (CN V) (anterior 2/3 of tongue) located within peritoneal cavity o Glossopharyngeal (CN IX post. 1/3 of tongue) greater and lesser curvatures o Vagus (CN X) epiglottic area Folds (Rugae): Allow expansion and increase surface area. ➔ Special sensory – taste two notches: cardiac (near the entry point of the esophagus) o anterior 2/3 - chorda tympani from VII and angular notch (marks the lower boundary of the body) o posterior 1/3 - glossopharyngeal (CN IX) Parts: ➔ Motor ➔ Fundus o to intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of tongue – hypoglossal Positioned on the left border. Salivary Glands (Accessory Digestive Organs) Boundary marked by an imaginary line through the cardiac secretions (salivary amylase) poured in the oral cavity starts notch. digestion of carbohydrates. ➔ Body ➔ Parotid Main section of the stomach. o largest o lies on the posterior border of ramus of mandible Lower boundary marked by an imaginary line through the o purely serous angular notch. o with stensen’s duct that open into oral vestibule opposite the ➔ Pyloric Antrum upper 2nd molar tooth Transitional area leading to the pylorus. o secretion is purely serous ➔ Pylorus o duct: Stensen's - opens into the vestibule of mouth opposite Tubular portion at the stomach's exit. upper second molar tooth Guarded by the pyloric sphincter. o viral inflammation: mumps or parotitis ➔ Cardiac Region o important structure embedded: facial nerve Surrounds the entry point of food from the esophagus. ➔ Submandibular Three Layers Of Smooth Muscles: Tunica o second largest Muscularis o mixed serous and mucous gland, more of serous will be mixing the food within your stomach o duct: Wharton's - which opens at sublingual papillae ➔ inner oblique layer ➔ Sublingual ➔ middle circular layer o smallest of 3 salivary glands o mixed serous and mucous but more of mucous ➔ outer longitudinal layer o ducts Chyme - Rivinus - small opens at summit of sublingual fold food + acid - Bartholins - large; opens into sublingual papillae mixing wave Cells In The Stomach Pharynx Parietal cell – secretes HCl and intrinsic factor (Vitamin B12) Nasopharynx (Epipharynx) Chief cell – secretes pepsin located behind the nasal cavity Mucus neck cell – secretes mucus respiratory function only G cell – secretes gastrin Oropharynx (Mesopharynx) Swallowing located behind oral cavity proper Tongue moves upward and backward palatine tonsil bounded by palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal Soft palate closes the nasopharynx fold Epiglottis moving down closing your larynx digestive and respiratory function The food will be going to your esophagus Laryngopharynx located behind larynx Small Intestine continuous with the esophagus Longest vellichor 2 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 20 ft Right Colic flexure (Hepatic Flexure) Absorption of nutrients Fold in the right side Presence of Villi and plica circularis – fold of mucosa Left Colic flexure (Splenic Flexure) Left side Parts: ➔ Duodenum Features of Large Intestines: C-shaped Plicae Semilunaris: Semi-circular folds in the inner lining that Enclosing the head of pancreas increase surface area for absorption. with 4 parts (superior, descending, transverse and ascending) Haustra (Sacculation): Pouch-like segments created by the the common bile duct (CBD) and main pancreatic duct and contraction of taenia coli muscles. accessory pancreatic ducts enter to the 2nd part of duodenum Taenia Coli: Longitudinal bands of muscle that help in the Gross Structural Characteristics: movement of contents through the colon. Epiploicae Appendices: Fatty tags attached to the outer major duodenal papilla with sphincter of Oddi around common surface of the colon, likely serving as energy reserves. duct and main pancreatic duct of Wirsung minor duodenal of accessory pancreatic duct of Santorini ➔ Ampulla of Vater Liver o CBD and MPD uniting to form ampulla vater The largest gland in the body. o Guarded by sphincter of oddi Consists of right and left lobes. ➔ Jejunum Produces bile, essential for digestion and fat emulsification. o located at the left upper quadrant Contains 2 smaller lobes: Quadrate Lobe (located on the o upper 2/5 (8ft) anterior surface) & Caudate Lobe (located on the posterior o more vascular wider and thicker than ileum surface, near the inferior vena cava) ➔ Ileum o longest, found at the right lower quadrant Ligaments o lower 3/5 (12ft) ➔ Falciform Ligaments o provided with Peyer's patches or aggregated lymph nodules o Anatomical division of the liver o Sickle-shaped Large Intestine o Anchors the liver the anterior abdominal wall and the diaphragm 5 feet long ➔ Coronary Ligaments ➔ Cecum o Coronal ligament o widest; located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen near o Attaches the liver to the diaphragm, and the right kidney and the iliac fossa. adrenal gland ➔ Vermiform Appendix ➔ Triangular Ligaments o located posteromedial to cecum o Asymmetrical ➔ Ascending Colon o Right and left components o extends superiorly from the cecum to the right colic flexure, near o Covers left lobe of the liver the liver, where it turns to the left. Inferior/Visceral Surface: ➔ Transverse Colon Fissure for ligamentum teres hepatis, ligamentum venosum o extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure near Fossa of Gallbladder and IVC the spleen, where the colon turns inferiorly Porta hepatis – entrance to the liver ➔ Descending Colon o common bile duct o extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis, where it o hepatic artery becomes the sigmoid colon. o portal vein ➔ Sigmoid Colon Lymphatics and nerves o s-shaped tube that extends medially and then inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and ends at the rectum. Gall Bladder ➔ Rectum location: undersurface of the liver o continuation of sigmoid at s3 vertebra stores and concentrates the bile o a straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination of the parts: fundus, body, neck, infundibulum sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal mucosa, muscular layer and serosa ➔ Anal Canal Spiral valve of heister – guarding the neck of gall bladder o The last 2–3 cm of the digestive tract o internal anal sphincter Pancreas o external anal sphincter retroperitoneal at the back of the stomach vellichor 3 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 both endocrine and exocrine organs o Renal Pelvis – union of major calyces endocrine – secretion of islets of Langerhans o Major calyx – union of minor calyces exocrine – secretion of enzymes with head, neck, body and tail and uncinate process Nephron Two Ducts: Structural and functional unit of the kidney ➔ Major Duct Of Wirsung – will drain to Main duodenal papilla and 1 million nephron each kidney it will be joint Consist of: by the common bile duct ➔Glomerulus – top of capillaries ➔ Accessory Duct Of Santorini – will drain to minor duodenal ➔Bowman’s capsule papilla ➔Proximal convoluted tubule ➔Loop of henle Extrahepatic Biliary Tract ➔Distal convoluted tubule – yung kulot Common Hepatic Duct o formed by the union of right and left hepatic duct ❖ Afferent arteriole – papasok ng glomerulus Cystic Duct ❖ Efferent arteriole – palabas ng glomerulus o duct of gall bladder ❖ Collecting tubule – this will be the collecting duct that will drain Common Bile Duct to your minor calyx o formed by the union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct Bowman’s Capsule o ampulla of vater – CBD and MPD uniting; Guarded by ➔ Inner Visceral Layer sphincter of oddi Composed of podocytes, octopus like that terminates in branching pedicles Blood Supply Of GIT Podocyte cell processes will be forming filtration slits, Unpaired Branches Of The Abdominal Aorta: together with the endothelium of the capillary will form the filtration membrane ➔ Celiac Trunk: Supplies blood to the stomach, liver, spleen, and part of the pancreas. ➔ Parietal Layer ➔ Superior Mesenteric Artery: Feeds blood to the small intestine, Simple squamous epithelium cecum, and part of the colon. ➔ Inferior Mesenteric Artery: Provides blood to the distal colon, Renal (Malphigian) Corpuscle rectum, and part of the sigmoid colon. Glomerulus plus bowman’s capsule Juxtaglomerular apparatus – consist of: URINARY SYSTEM ➔JG cell (Juxtaglomerular cells) Composed of: o Secreting substance called Renin ➔ Kidney ➔Macula densa o Part of the distal convoluted tubule - Cuboidal cells ➔ Ureter o Columnar cells – adjacent to the afferent arteriole ➔ Urinary bladder ➔Mesangial cell ➔ Urethra o extra glomerular mesangial cell/ Lacis cells Kidney Mechanism of Urine Formation Paired, reddish brown, retroperitoneal Glomerular filtration Coverings Tubular reabsorption ➔ Renal Capsule – immediate covering of the kidney Tubular secretion ➔ Perirenal Fat (perinephric fat) – around the renal capsule ➔ Renal Fascia (gerota’s fascia) – external to perirenal fat; continuous with transversalis fascia ➔ Pararenal (paranephric fat) – outermost Two Parts of Kidney ➔ Cortex – outer ➔ Medulla – inner o Renal pyramids – triangle o Renal column – extension of cortex towards the medulla; between the pyramids vellichor 4 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Filtration – filtration (blue arrow) is the movement of materials across the filtration membrane into Bowman’s capsule to form Net Filtration Pressure filtrate Force responsible for filtrate formation Reabsorption – solutes are reabsorbed (purple arrow) across NFP = glomerular hydrostatic pressure – (glomerular oncotic the wall of the nephron into the interstitial fluid by transport pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure) process, such as active transport and cotransport. Glomerular Filtration Rate o water is reabsorbed (green arrow) across the wall of the amount of filtrate formed per minute time nephron by osmosis. Equal to 125ml/min o water and solutes pass from the interstitial fluid into the Directly proportional to the net filtration pressure peritubular capillaries. Secretion – solutes are secreted (orange arrow) across the wall of the nephron into the capillaries. Tubular Reabsorption The process of returning needed substance from the filtrate to the capillary blood Glomerular Filtration Active or passive depending on a particular substance Acts as a filter Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) is the most active 80% of 1/5 of blood flowing through the kidneys is filtered from the filtrate, nutrients water and Na, the bulk actively transported ions glomeruli are reabsorbed here Through filtration membrane: podocyte cell processes, Reabsorption in Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) tubule and basement membrane & capillary endothelium collecting duct is controlled by Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone Pressures Acting on the Glomerulus ➔Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure a force that push the water and solutes across the filtration membrane ➔Glomerular Osmotic Pressure opposes filtration, hold the fluid inside the glomerulus exerted by plasma protein plasma protein – like a magnet for the fluid ➔Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure opposes filtration, force exerted by the fluid inside the bowman’s capsule Tubular Secretion Glomerular capillary pressure, the blood pressure within the adding substance to the filtrate from blood or tubular cells glomerulus, moves fluid from the blood into Bowman’s capsule. Can be active or passive Capsular pressure, the pressure inside Bowman’s capsule, Important in eliminating urea, excess ions, drugs, and moves fluid from the capsule into the blood maintaining acid base balance Colloid osmotic pressure, produced by the concentration of blood proteins, moves fluid from Bowman’s capsule into the Regulation Of Urine Concentration And Volume blood osmosis Urine osmolarity ranges from 50-1200mosm Filtration pressure is equal to the glomerular capillary pressure Hyperosmolarity of the medullary fluid ensures that the urine minus the capsular and colloid osmotic pressures. reaching the DCT is hypo-osmolar vellichor 5 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 In the absence of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), urine becomes it will stimulate the aldosterone secretion from your adrenal diluted – If you don’t have ADH, your water will not be inhibited cortex from going out of your system. Water will be joining the solutes aldosterone – will increased Na and water reabsorption results therefore; the urine will become diluted. in increased BP When Blood ADH increases the permeability of DCT and Renal Clearance collecting duct to water increases (the water will not be going The rate at which the kidneys clear the plasma for a particular out, your ADH will hold the water in) solute Ureter 10 inches long muscular tube Three Anatomical Constrictions ➔ at the uretero-pelvic junction ➔ where iliac vessels cross the ureter ➔ where it joins the urinary bladder Urinary Bladder Hollow muscular organ Temporary storage of urine Wall consist of detrusor muscle Will contain folds called rugae; without rugae called trigone – smooth area Inner – trigone occupied by ureteral orifices and urethral orifice Increased osmolality/ large decrease in BP – you have less water (decreased Fluid volume) Urethra (Male) Increased ADH release – the kidney will increase water Prostatic - widest, most dilatable, prostate gland reabsorption in decreased osmolality and increased Membranous – traverses’ urogenital diaphragm, shortest and BP(increased Fluid volume) least dilatable When you have decreased BP, JG cells will secrete the renin Penile(spongy) - longest, traverses corpus spongiosum Urethra (Female) 4cm Opens into vestibule MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Functions Production and transport of male sperm cells Production of male hormones like testosterone Gonads Male – testis Female – ovary External Genitalia Scrotum Angiotensinogen wrinkled sac containing testis, epididymis, and vas deferens protein in your blood dartos muscle this will be converted by renin into Angiotensin I regulates testicular temperature Angiotensin I cold temperature – testis gets closer to the body will be circulating in the lungs warm temperature- testis hangs loosely angiotensin converting enzyme, this will be converted into spermatogenesis requires 2-3 °C lower than body temperature Angiotensin II Angiotensin II vasoconstrictor, there will be an increased in BP Penis vellichor 6 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Body Joins the duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct – made up 3 erectile tissues which will drain to the prostatic urethra ➔Corpora Cavernosa Will go to the back of urinary bladder and will dilate to form your o 2, dorsolateral, vascular spaces ampulla ➔Corpus Spongiosum Functions o contains spongy urethra Storage of sperm cells o located ventrally Conveys sperm cell from epididymis to ejaculatory duct and Root urethra proximal Reabsorbed not ejaculated sperm cells ➔Bulb o expanded proximal portion of corpus spongiosum. Cowper’s (Bulbourethral) Gland o covered by bulb spongiosum. Located within the urogenital diaphragm on either side of ➔Crura membranous urethra o proximal tapered parts of corpora cavernosa. Opens into penile urethra o covered by ischiocavernosum. Secretions Glans Penis ➔Alkaline fluid expanded distal end of corpus spongiosum ➔Mucus – lubricates penis and lining of urethra distal terminal urethra is expanded called fossa navicularis prepuce and frenulum Male Urethra Internal Genitalia passage way of urine and semen 20 cm Testis intra-abdominal during fetal life Prostatic descends and covered by tunica vaginalis from peritoneum Traverse prostate gland deep covering tunica albuginea widest, most dilatable divides the testis into lobules 2-3 cm each lobule contains seminiferous tubule Membranous Cells in the Testis traverses’ urogenital diaphragm ➔Spermatogenic Cells o grow and mature to form mature sperm cells. shortest and least dilatable 1 cm ➔Sertoli Cells/Sustentacular Cells o support and protect sperm cells. ➔Interstitial Cells Of Leydig Penile o secrete testosterone longest, travers’s corpus spongiosum o located in between seminiferous tubules 15-20 cm Male Reproductive Duct Accessory Reproductive Organs Epididymis Prostate Gland comma shaped, 4cm long located beneath urinary bladder with 5 lobes located posterior to the testis, with ff parts, head, body and tail surround prostatic urethra tail is continuous with vas deferens secretes milky, slightly acidic pH 6.5 seminal fluid Functions Secretions Site of sperm maturation – mobility and capability to fertilize an ➔Citric acid – for ATP energy of sperm cells ovum (10-14 days) ➔Acid phosphatase Storage of sperm cells ➔Proteolytic enzyme – breaks down clotting protein Propel sperm cells to vas deferens ➔Prostate specific antigen (PSA) Vas/Ductus Deferens Seminal Vesicle Continuation of epididymis Located postero-inferior to urinary bladder 45cm long 5cm long Passes through the inguinal canal and enter the pelvic cavity Convoluted pouch vellichor 7 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 60% of semen volume Cryptorchidism Secretes fructose Undescended testis Secretions 80% will spontaneously descend during 1 year of life ➔Alkaline viscous fluid May result to sterility and testicular cancer o neutralizes acidic environment of vagina and male urethra o contains fructose for energy source of sperm cells ➔Prostaglandin Circumcision o mobility and sperm viability Removal of the foreskin from the penis o stimulate smooth muscle contraction of female ➔Clotting protein FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM o coagulate sperm after ejaculation Functions ➔ Production and transport of ovum Semen ➔ Production of hormones volume- 2.5- 5ml with 50-150million sperm cells/ml approx. 300- o Estrogen 500millions sperm o Progesterone Slightly alkaline 7.2-7.7 o Relaxin Contains seminal plasmin destroys certain bacteria o Inhibin Once ejaculated sperm coagulates in 5min due to clotting ➔ Nurture the developing zygote protein from seminal vesicle About 10-20 min liquefies due to prostate specific antigen (PSA) Perineum and other proteolytic enzymes from prostate Components of Semen Diamond shape Contains genitalia and anus ➔Seminal fluid Boundaries secretion from glands ➔ Anterior – pubic symphysis prostate gives milky white, seminal vesicle and bulbourethral gland sticky appearance ➔ Lateral – ischial tuberosities ➔Sperm ➔ Posterior – coccyx 70um, viable in 72hrs o Head External Genitalia acrosomes with lysosomal enzymes for penetration of zona Sex organ is located pellucida of 2° oocyte nucleus – with 23 chromosomes haploid number o Mid Piece – with mitochondria Mons Pubis o Tail – flagella for motility Mound, fats beneath and symphysis pubis Puberty, pubic Erection Enlargement and stiffening of the penis Labia Majora Due to tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and imagination Skin fold with hair reaches erection center in hypothalamus --- sends Pudendal cleft – space in between labia majora parasympathetic nerve impulses into the penis ---vasodilatation of helicine arteries into the penis – erection Labia Minora Skin fold, hairless Ejaculation Few swear gland, many sebaceous gland Powerful expulsion of semen from the urethra to the exterior --- Vestibule – space between labia minora due to sympathetic reflex--- closure of smooth muscle sphincter ➔Clitoris at the base of urinary bladder-peristaltic contraction of the male o frenulum and prepuce reproductive tract o small cylindrical mass o abundant nerve endings Emission o corpora cavernosa- clitoral erection o homologue to male glans penis Discharge of small volume of semen before ejaculation ➔Urethral orifice May occur during sleep, nocturnal emission ➔Paraurethral glands (skene’s gland) Due to peristaltic contraction of male reproductive tracts o secretes mucus o homologue to prostate vellichor 8 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 o vaginal orifice – guarded with hymen ➔ Cardinal ligament ➔Bartholin’s (greater vestibular gland) Fallopian Tube Internal Genitalia Parts: Vagina ➔ Infundibulum fibromuscular canal With fimbria lined by mucous membrane ➔ Ampulla rugae Most dilated hymen Site of fertilization acidic Longest, lat 2/3 fornices ➔ Isthmus Functions of Vagina Narrowest ➔ Copulation ➔ Intramural/Interstitial o receives the penis during sexual intercourse Buried into uterus ➔ Birth canal Functions: ➔ Outlet of menstrual flow Provide route for sperm to reach the ovum Transport oocyte from ovary to fallopian tube during ovulation Uterus Site of oocyte digestion if no fertilization Parts: Transport fertilized ovum to be implanted in the endometrium of the uterus ➔ Fundus Above attachment of fallopian tube Ovary ➔ Body From attachment of fundus to isthmus uteri Almond shape ➔ Cervix located lateral to the uterus produces oocyte Distal with canal Surrounded by proximal part of vaginal canal mesovarium ovarian ligament Layers of the Uterus infundibulopelvic ligament Hormones Secreted by Ovary ➔ Perimetrium ➔ Progesterone and Estrogen outer covering derived from peritoneum prepares the uterine glands and maintains the endometrium for implantation forms the uterovesical and rectouterine pouch Prepares the mammary for milk production ➔ Myometrium inhibits FSH and LH if high Middle layer ➔ Inhibin Smooth muscles Secreted by granulosa cell and inhibits FSH secretion Thickest at the fundus and thinnest at the cervix ➔ Relaxin Response to oxytocin stimulation during labor and delivery relaxes the uterus during implantation and pregnancy ➔ Endometrium help dilates the cervix Innermost Contains endometrial glands Response to estrogen and progesterone that prepares the Female Reproductive Cycle uterus for possible implantation ➔ Ovarian Cycle Layers: involves maturation of oocyte stratum functionalis ➔ Uterine Cycle o slough off during menstruation Changes in the endometrium stratum basalis o does not slough off during menstruation gives rise to new stratum functionalis Hormonal Regulation Ligaments Support of Uterus Controlled by GnRH from hypothalamus that causes the release ➔ Broad ligament of FSH and LH Derived from peritoneum ➔ Round ligament of the uterus ➔ Follicle Stimulating Hormone ➔ Uterosacral ligament stimulate growth of follicle and secretion of estrogen vellichor 9 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ➔ Luteinizing Hormone responsible for the synthesis and secretion of chemical stimulate further development of follicle, ovulation, corpus messenger known as hormones which are disseminated luteum production of progesterone throughout the body via the bloodstream where they act on ➔ Estrogen specific target organs. maintenance of female repro, secondary characteristics and the secretory cells release their hormones into the interstitial breast development. space from which they are rapidly absorbed into the circulation. ➔ Progesterone Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands have no duct system and therefore sometimes called the ductless glands. secreted by corpus luteum Endocrine organs are highly vascular and you have blood acts synergistically with estrogen vessels that are fenestrated (there are holes for the passage of prepares the endometrium for implantation and mammary gland large molecules) for milk production Types of Endocrine Glands Phases of Female Reproductive Cycle Pituitary Gland Menstrual Phase also known as Hypophysis or Hypophysis Cerebri Last for 3-5 days a specialized appendage of the brain which secretes several 1st day of menstruation is 1st day of cycle hormones. 50-150ml of menstrual flow small slightly elongated gland approximately 1 cm in diameter decreased estrogen and progesterone level in the blood causes situated in the Sella turcica of the sphenoid bone and it is ischemia of functionalis leading to menstruation connected to the base of the brain via the infundibulum or stalk. Pea shaped structure measuring 1-1.5 cm in diameter Preovulatory Phase (Proliferative) formerly regarded as the master gland because it influences the Between menstruation and ovulation rest of the endocrine glands; however, the hypothalamus More variable length regulates the function of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland Dominant follicle is selected to mature hence this was regarded untrue Estrogen and inhibin secreted by dominant follicle and stop FSH secretion to prevent other follicle to grow Divisions of the Pituitary Gland Repair of endometrium Anterior Pituitary Cells of basalis form new functionalis also called the adenohypophysis makes up 75% of the total weight of the gland arises as an epithelial outgrowth from the roof of the primitive Ovulation oral cavity known as the Rathke’s pouch Release of secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube secreting the hormones Usually during 14th day of a 28th day cycle Hormones secreted by Anterior Pituitary: Follicles retained from mature graafian lead to minor bleeding ➔ Growth hormones – long bones called corpus hemorrhagicum and later transforms into corpus ➔ Thyroid stimulating hormone – thyroid gland luteum ➔ GnRh (follicles stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone) – testis and ovary Post Ovulatory Phase ➔ Prolactin – mammary gland for milk production. Constant phase last for 14 days in a 28 days cycle ➔ ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone) – adrenal After ovulation LH stimulated remnants of mature graafian glands/cortex follicle to develop into corpus luteum ➔ MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone) – skin Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some estrogen Ovary if oocyte is fertilized corpus luteum can persist up to 2 Posterior Pituitary weeks due to Human Chorionic Gonadotropin produced by placenta also called neurohypophysis If not fertilized corpus luteum degenerates in 10 to 12 days’ time derived from downgrowth of nervous tissue from the forming corpus albicans Endometrium thickens and edema hypothalamus to which it remains joined by the pituitary stalk formation for preparation of implantation coming from the floor of diencephalon. It will just store the hormones that will come from hypothalamic nuclei. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM the neurohypophysis does not synthesize hormones. Instead stores and releases two hormones Endocrine Glands Secretions from this lobe are produced by the cell bodies of the It is also called the ductless glands. supraoptic nucleus (produces vasopressin or ADH) and the paraventricular nucleus (produces oxytocin) of the vellichor 10 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 hypothalamus and are moved by axonal transport to the axon supplied by inferior thyroid artery terminals in the posterior pituitary secretes parathormone, which directly elevate blood calcium Hormones stored by Posterior Pituitary: levels ➔ ADH (antidiuretic hormone, Vasopressin) –kidney tubules if your calcitonin will decrease your calcium level, your ➔ Oxytocin (pitocin) – smooth muscle of uterus for contraction; parathormone will increase your calcium level. mammary gland for milk let down or milk ejection. usually there are: ➔ 2 superior parathyroid glands Pituicytes ➔ 2 inferior parathyroid glands modified neuroglial cells found in the pars nervosa believed to store and release 2 hormones: Adrenal (Suprarenal) Gland ➔ Pitocin (oxytocin) small flattened endocrine glands closely applied to the Stimulates uterine contraction upper pole of the kidneys stimulates milk ejection (milk “letdown) from the mammary glands in responseto the mechanical stimulation provided Two Components of the Adrenal Gland by the suckling infant Adrenal Cortex ➔ Pitressin or ADH outer and thicker portion increases water reabsorption at the distal convoluted 3 layers of cell: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona tubules of the kidneys. reticularis has a vasopressor effect hence also called vasopressin Secretions: raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles ➔ Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone and deoxycortisones) o regulate fluids and electrolytes Pineal Gland o help adjust blood pressure and blood volume ➔ Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisone) also called epiphysis cerebri or conarium o regulate metabolism and resistance to stress a small organ, 6-8 mm long located at the caudal end of the diencephalon of the brain. ➔ Androgens consists of cells called pinealocytes o promote libido in females and are converted to estrogen, o also stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hairs in boys and Hormones secreted: Melatonin derived from serotonin, which girls and contribute to the prepubertal growth spurt may promote sleepiness Adrenal medulla Secretes the catecholamines – epinephrine and norepinephrine Thyroid Gland Produces effects that enhance those of the sympathetic division a lobulated gland lying in front of the neck at the upper part of of the autonomic nervous system during stress the trachea there are 2 lobes connected at the midline by the isthmus Increase blood K levels or decreased blood Na levels cause the Also secretes thyrocalcitonin secreted by the parafollicular cells adrenal cortex to increase the secretion of aldosterone into the which helps regulate calcium general circulation. homeostasis A decrease in blood pressure is detected by the kidneys. In Contains follicles, which secrete 2 thyroid hormones: thyroxine response, they increase the secretion of renin into the general to (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) angiotensin I. a converting enzyme changes angiotensin I to o Actions of the thyroid hormones: angiotensin II, which causes constriction of blood vessels, ➔ increase basal metabolic rate resulting in increased blood pressure. ➔ helps maintain normal body temperature Angiotensin II causes increased secretion of aldosterone, which primarily affects the kidneys. histologically, it is formed by various follicles of different sizes Aldosterone stimulation of the kidneys causes Na retention, K and shape lined by simple cuboidal cells containing colloid excretion and decreased water loss. material containing thyroglobulin between capillaries are dense capillary network supported by reticular fibers Pancreas Thyrocalcitonin is secreted in response to hypercalcemia (high pistol shaped flattened organ, the head part of which is enclosed calcium levels). by the duodenum, the body at the back of stomach and tail It lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclast activity, related with spleen preventing excessive calcium release from bones. not only exocrine gland but also has important endocrine functions Parathyroid Gland the endocrine portion is the Islets of Langerhans the exocrine portion is secretion of enzymes. are small oval endocrine glands closely associated posteriorly with the thyroid gland vellichor 11 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 pancreatic islets vary in size and most numerous at the tail of Addison’s Disease the pancreas disorder caused by the destruction of the adrenal cortices characterized by chronic deficiency of cortisol, aldosterone and Cells in the Islets of Langerhans androgens causing skin pigmentation Alpha Cells GENERAL AND SPECIAL SENSES less numerous containing acidophilic granules. Senses found at the periphery of the islet and secrete glucagon – which Brain receives information about the environment and the body increases blood sugar Sensation Beta Cells process initiated by stimulating sensory receptors and found at the center of the islets perception it secretes insulin which decreases blood sugar Perception Delta Cells conscious awareness of those stimuli secrete somatostatin, which inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon and slows absorption of nutrients from the GIT Five Recognized Senses F Cells Smell secrete pancreatic polypeptide Taste Vision Testis Hearing Touch are paired organs lodging in the scrotum are responsible for the production of the male gametes, spermatozoa, and male sex Senses are divided into two: hormones General senses the endocrine portion is the interstitial cells of Leydig which Special senses secrete these androgens: ➔ Testosterone Sensory Receptors ➔ Dihydrotestosterone ➔ Androstenedione Nerve endings or specialized cells capable of responding to Its main hormone testosterone regulates production of sperm stimuli by developing action and stimulates the development and maintenance of masculine secondary sex characteristics such as beard growth and Receptors deepening of the voice ➔ Mechanoreceptors – respond to mechanical stimuli; bending and stretching Ovaries ➔ Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals. ➔ Photoreceptors – respond to light the follicular cells of the ovarian follicle secrete estrogen and the corpus luteum secretes progesterone ➔ Thermoreceptors – respond to temperature changes These hormones regulate the female reproductive cycle: ➔ Nociceptors (noceo = to injure) – respond to stimuli that result in o Regulate oogenesis the sensation of pain o maintain pregnancy o prepare the mammary gland for lactation GENERAL SENSES o promote development and maintenance of female General senses are widely distributed across various parts of secondary sex characteristics the body and are categorized as either Somatic or Visceral. o placenta also producing a hormone – syncytiotrophoblast, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) Somatic Senses ➔ Touch Endocrine Gland Diseases ➔ Pressure Grave’s Disease ➔ Proprioception (sense of body position) autoimmune disorder associated with increased circulating ➔ Temperature levels of thyroid hormones ➔ Pain Diabetes Mellitus Visceral Senses disorder of metabolism and chronic hyperglycemia ➔ Pain Cushing’s Syndrome ➔ Pressure refers to the manifestations of excessive corticosteroids e.g. Central obesity, moon face, buffalo hump, osteoporosis, hypertension, hyperglycemia Somatosensory System vellichor 12 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 General Senses ➔ N3 - Ventroposterolateral nucleus (thalamus), terminating in ➔ Light touch or tactile discrimination Brodmann’s area 3,1,2 in the post-central gyrus (opposite side ➔ Pressure of the receptor). ➔ Touch ➔ Pain Crude Touch Pathway (Light Touch, Pressure) ➔ Temperature Pathway: Ventral/Anterior Spinothalamic Tract ➔ Limb position Receptors: Meissner's corpuscle, Merkel's disc, Hair follicle nerve ending Receptors ➔ N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion ➔ Meissner’s corpuscles – Light touch ➔ N2 - Laminae VI, VII, VIII; fibers cross to the opposite side. ➔ Hair follicle nerve ending – Light touch ➔ N3 - Ventroposterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, ending in ➔ Merkel’s tactile disc – Touch Brodmann’s area 3,1,2. ➔ Pacinian corpuscle – Pressure ➔ Krause end – Cold Discriminative Touch, Deep Pressure, and ➔ Ruffini’s nerve ending – Heat/warmth Proprioception Pathway ➔ Free nerve – Pain Pathway: Dorsal Column/Medial Lemniscal System ➔ Muscle spindle – Proprioception Receptors: Pacinian corpuscle, Meissner’s corpuscle, Muscle ➔ Golgi tendon organ (Tendon spindle) – Proprioception spindles, Tendon spindles ➔ N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion; fibers ascend as fasciculus gracilis or fasciculus cuneatus. General Sense Pathways ➔ N2 - Synapse in nucleus gracilis or cuneatus, cross at the First-order neuron (N1): Sensory neuron that receives the medial lemniscus. initial stimulus. ➔ N3 - Ventroposterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, ending in Second-order neuron (N2): Association neuron. Brodmann’s area 3,1,2. Third-order neuron (N3): Transmits sensory information to the cortex. Clinical Signs of Injury to the Lemniscal Pathway Ascending Fiber Tracts Inability to recognize limb position Astereognosia – Inability to identify objects by touch Anterolateral System Loss of vibration sense o Lateral Spinothalamic Tract – For pain and temperature (except head). Loss of two-point discrimination o Anterior Spinothalamic Tract – Crude touch or light touch Positive Romberg’s Sign – Increased body sway with eyes (except head). closed Pathways to the Cerebellum Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract – Unconscious Unconscious Proprioception Pathways proprioception from lower limbs. Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract – Lower extremity group Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract – Unconscious proprioception proprioception from lower limbs. Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract – Individual muscle Cuneocerebellar Tract – Unconscious proprioception from the proprioception in lower extremities upper body. Cuneocerebellar Tract – Upper extremity muscle Posterior Column (Dorsal Column) – For conscious proprioception proprioception, deep pressure, and discriminative touch. - Gracile fasciculus – Lower extremities. Motor System - Cuneate fasciculus – Upper extremities. Pain and Temperature Pathway Pyramidal System Pathway: Lateral Spinothalamic Tract Controls skilled voluntary movements. Receptors: Free nerve endings, Krause end bulb, Ruffini’s corpuscle Pathways: ➔ N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion ➔ Corticospinal Tract ➔ N2 - Dorsal horn cells (spinal cord), axons cross to the Origin: Primary motor cortex (Brodmann’s areas 4, 6). opposite side and ascend. 90% of fibers cross in the medulla to form the Lateral Corticospinal Tract. ➔ Corticobulbar Tract vellichor 13 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Origin: Brodmann’s areas 4 and 8. Produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eyes Terminates at motor nuclei in the brainstem, supplying Ciliary Glands cranial nerves. Modified sweat glands between the eyelashes Conjunctiva Clinical Correlations Lines the eyelids and covers part of the white eye (sclera) ➔ Upper Motor Neuron Lesions infront Spastic paralysis, hyperreflexia, positive Babinski sign. Secretes the mucus which helps to lubricate the eyeball and ➔ Lower Motor Neuron Lesions keep it moist Flaccid paralysis, hyporeflexia, muscle atrophy, and Lacrimal Glands positive fasciculations. Located above the lateral ends of each eye Continually release a dilute salt solution (tears= “ lacrimal fluid) Extrapyramidal System that drain into the nasal cavity through the inferior meatus Lacrimal fluid not only moistens and lubricates conjunctival sac Coordinates movements and postural adjustments. but also reduces eye infections because it contains bactericidal enzyme (lysozyme Functions: Smooth movement coordination with the pyramidal system. Extrinsic Eye Muscles Control of automatic actions (e.g., smiling). Control Movement of Eyeball Action Nerve Supply Postural and muscle tone adjustments. Lateral rectus moves eye Laterally VI Medial rectus moves eye medially III Superior rectus moves eye Upwards medially III SPECIAL SENSES Inferior rectus moves eye Downwards and medially III Inferior oblique moves eye Upwards and laterally III Superior oblique moves eye Downwards and laterally IV Visual Sense/Apparatus Each eyeball is positioned in a bony depression in the skull Coats of Eyeball called orbit Fibrous Coat Only the anterior one-sixth of the eye’s surface can normally be Protects the delicate inner structure of the eye and with the seen intraocular pressure maintain the shape and turgor of the Made up of the eyeball specialized for its ability to react to light eyeball Sclera - posterior 5/6 - opaque, white of the eye Eyeball Cornea - Anterior 1/6 – Transparent the stimuli for sense of vision, the light rays must pass through the different parts of the refractive media before reaching the ➔ Sclera retina. o the outermost coat These are the following: o also called the fibrous tunic seen anteriorly as the “white of ➔ cornea the ye” ➔ aqueous humor o covered in the anterior part by the transparent conjunctiva o densely packed collagenous fibers (type I collagen fibrils) – ➔ lens where tendons of extraocular muscles are attached ➔ vitreous humor o pierced by optic nerve, ciliary nerves and blood vessels ➔ Cornea Accessory structures of the eye – protects, lubricate, move the eye o The central transparent anterior portion of the eye covering Extrinsic Eye Muscles the colored part of the eye which is the iris Eyelids - controlled by orbicularis oculi o One of the few organs that can be successfully Conjunctiva - transparent covering of the eyeball transplanted from one person to another without the worry Lacrimal apparatus of rejection because it has no blood vessels thus it is beyond the reach of the immune system Eyelids o Avascular and the central part depends on diffusion from aqueous humor for its nourishment. Anteriorly the eyes are protected by the eyelids which meet at o Thicker than sclera with refractive power 2x as high as the the medial and lateral corners of the eye, the medial and lateral lens canthus respectively Blinking – occur 20 times per minute Vascular and Muscular coat or UVEA Eyelashes - Projecting from the border of each eyelid Concerned with nutrition of retina and production of aqueous humor Meibomian Glands Provides mechanisms for accommodation of the eyes for near Modified sebaceous glands associated with the eyelid edges vision and control of amount of light entering the eye vellichor 14 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 Choroid – most of the blood vessels are located on choroid Ciliary body – secretes aqueous humor Photoreceptor Iris ➔ Rods stimulated by low intensity light Constrict - Increase in light ; Relax - decrease in light For night vision (scotopic vision) Contains reddish pigment ➔ Choroid Rhodopsin – very sensitive and produces detachable signal o Middle coat of the eye on absorption of a single photon of light o Blood-rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark pigment that Night blindness – vitamin a deficiency prevents light from the scattering inside the eye ➔ Cones ➔ Ciliary Body stimulated by high intensity light o A thickened part of the vascular layer (tunic) of the eye. For day vision/ color vision (photopic vision) sensitive to o Links the choroid to the circumference of the iris. blue, green, and red lights – 3 kinds provide basis for color o Contains the ciliary muscle, which aids in vision accommodation—the ability of the eye to focus on close objects. o When the ciliary muscle contracts, the lens becomes more Refractive Media of the Eyes convex, enhancing focus for nearby objects. Transparent structures traversed by the light rays on the way to o Eye strain occurs with focus less than 20 feet; beyond 20 the photoreceptors of the retina feet, the eye muscles relax. These structures can bend or refract the light rays so the o Produce aqueous humor, which nourishes the eye and images can be focused on the retina. maintains intraocular pressure. ➔ Cornea ➔ Aqueous humor (water) (in anterior and posterior chamber) Glaucoma – eye disease can cause vision loss if you are diabetic ➔ Lens ➔ Vitreous humor ➔ Iris o Heavy pigmented colored part of the eye which is membranous extension of the choroid Lens o Partially covers the lens, leaving around opening at the transparent biconvex body situated immediately behind the center called pupil pupil. o With sphincter and dilator pupillae (constrict and dilate shape changes during accommodation pupils) covered by a homogenous highly refractile capsule which is o Like the diaphragm of the camera; it can increase or essentially an exceedingly thick basal lamina decrease the diameter of its aperture (the pupil) to admit Vitreous Humor more or less light colorless, structureless. gelatinous mass with a glasslike o Constriction of the pupils is produced by contraction of the transparency filling up the vitreous cavity between lens and circularly arranged fibers within the iris supplied by retina. parasympathetic, dilation is produced by contraction of the nearly 99% is water radially arranged fibers supplied by sympathetic with liquid and solid phase. Pars Optica Two Smooth Muscles photosensitive area ➔Sphincter pupillae with a circular depressed white area, optic disk or optic papilla Circumferentially oriented fibers where optic nerve exits and retinal vessels enter and leave Constriction of pupil (parasympathetic) Optic Disk Constriction - miosis contains nerve fibers but no photoreceptors and is insensitive to ➔Dilator pupillae light. Radially oriented fibers Called physiologic blind spot. 2.5 cm lateral to optic disk is a small oval yellow area Macula Dilation of pupil (sympathetic) Lutea with central depressed area Fovea Centralis. Dilation – mydriasis This is the area of most Nerve Coat acute vision. Characterized by presence of cones and neural element greater ➔ Retina than elsewhere. This is a rod free area Innermost layer where receptors for sense of sight are found ❖ Cuneus gyri – lies on the superior bank of the calcarine cortex, The nervous coat of the eyeball containing the receives the medial fibers of the visual radiations. photoreceptor cells vellichor 15 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 ❖ Lingual gyrus – lies on the inferior bank of the calcarine cortex, R Optic Tract L Homonymous hemianospia R Optic radiation the medial fibers coursing in the visual radiations, which carry R Calcarine area input from the upper retina (i.e. the lower contralateral visual field), pass from the lateral geniculate body directly through the Functions of the Eye parietal lobe to reach the cuneus gyrus. Functions like a camera. When light passes from one substance to another with a Pupil allows light into the eyes, which focused by the cornea different density, its speed changes, and its rays are bent or The light striking the photoreceptors of the retina produces refracted. action potentials within the visual pathway Light rays are bent in the eye as they encounter the cornea, The optic nerve conveys these action potentials to the brain aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor. where perception occurs The refractive or bending power of the cornea and humors is constant. Auditory Sense The lens can change its refractive power by altering its shape to properly focus light on the retina. Parts of the Ear The greater the lens convexity or bulge, the more it bends the light. Outer (External) Ear The flatter the lens, the less it bends the light. Pinna or auricle The resting eye is "set" for distant vision. External acoustic meatus Light from a distant source (over 20 ft) approaches the eye as Tympanic Membrane or Eardrum parallel rays, requiring no lens shape change for proper focus on the retina. ➔ Pinna or Auricle Light from a close object scatters and diverges, requiring the Shell-shaped structure surrounding the auditory canal lens to bulge for close vision. opening The ciliary body contracts to allow the lens to become more ➔ External Auditory Canal convex for close vision. A short narrow chamber about 1 inch long by ½ inch wide Electrical signals pass from photoreceptors (rods and cones) to Curved into temporal bone of the skull bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells. Skin of walls lined with ceruminous glands which secretes Axons of ganglion cells converge and pierce the back of the a waxy yellow substance called ear wax, or cerumen retina (optic disc) to form the optic nerve. ➔ Tympanic Membrane or Eardrum Myopia – nearsightedness; corrects with concave A thin membrane separating outer from middle ear Hyperopia – farsightedness; corrects with convex Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity) Ossicles (malleus, incus stapes) Visual Pathway Tensor tympani, stapedius Optic nerve has nasal fibers ( from the medial side) and temporal fibers (from the lateral side) ➔ Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity Nasal fibers receive impulse from the temporal visual field and A small, air filled cavity within the temporal bone the temporal fibers receive impulse from the nasal visual field ➔ Medial Boundary Nasal fibers decussate at the level of the optic chiasm while temporal fibers leave the optic chiasm without decussating A bony wall with 2 openings: o Oval window Fibers from the optic chiasm going to the lateral geniculate o Round window bodies are called optic tract ➔ Lateral Boundary Lateral geniculate bodies are the last relay station of the visual pathway Tympanic membrane with handle of the malleus attached Cells from the lateral geniculate bodies project fibers to the ➔ Anterior Boundary primary visual area and are called optic radiation or Eustachian tube (connects middle ear and nasopharynx) geniculocalcarine tract ➔ Posterior Boundary Termination of the visual pathway is at the calcarine area, the Mastoid process primary visual area Inner (Internal) Ear (Labyrinth) (Brodmann’s area 17) Composed of 2 parts: ➔ Bony Labyrinth Lesion Clinical Manifestation (Visual Field Defect) Right Optic Nerve Anospia/Blindness of the right eye o Wall is bony – temporal bone o Fluid inside is perilymph (one of the two types of cochlear Lateral Optic Chiasm Binasal Heteronymous Hemianopsia Medial Optic Chiasm Bitemporal Heteronymous Hemianopsia fluids, the other being endolymph) vellichor 16 vellichor ANPH 111 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A.Y. ’24 – ‘25 oMade up of: ➔ Conduction Deafness Cochlea – made up of scala vestibuli and tympani; o Temporary or permanent concerned with hearing o Results when something interferes with conduction of Vestibule – concerned with static equilibrium sound vibrations to the fluids of the inner ear 3 semicircular canals – concerned with dynamic o Involves diseases of external and middle ear equilibrium Impacted Cerumen ➔ Membranous Labyrinth Otosclerosis o Found inside the bony labyrinth Rupture of Eardrum o Wall is fibrous