Anatomy and Physiology (1st Year) PDF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NO...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 1 : THE HUMAN ORGANISM ANATOMY Is the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s X-RAY structures for example, the shape and size of bones. This extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body, exposing Means to dissect or cut apart and separate the parts of the a photographic plate to form a radiograph body for study. Radiographs create a flat, two-dimensional Anatomy examines the relationship between the structure of a (2D) image. body part and its function. The word anatomy comes from the Greek word “ana” meaning up, and “tome” meaning a cutting. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY ULTRASOUND Uses high-frequency sound waves, which Studies the structural changes that occur between conception strike internal organs and bounce back to and adulthood. the receiver on the skin. EMBRYOLOGY Among other medical applications, A subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes ultrasound is commonly used to evaluate from conception to the end of the eighth week of development. the condition of the fetus during pregnancy. Some structures, such as cells, are so small that they must be studied using a microscope. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) CYTOLOGY Are computer-analyzed x-ray images. Examines the structural features of cells Some computers are able to take several HISTOLOGY scans short distances apart and stack the Examines tissues, which are composed of cells slices to produce a 3D image of a body part and the materials surrounding them. GROSS ANATOMY The study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope, can be approached either systemically or DIGITAL SUBTRACTION ANGIOGRAPHY regionally. (DSA) SYSTEM Is one step beyond CT scanning. Is a group of structures that have one or more A radiopaque dye is injected into the blood, common functions, such as the cardiovascular, which allows for enhanced differences when nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular compared to a noninjected scan. systems. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY The body is studied system by system. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) Directs radio waves at a person lying inside In regional anatomy, the body is a large electromagnetic field. studied area by area An MRI is more effective at detecting some Within each region, such as the head, forms of cancer than a CT scan abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously. REGIONAL APPROACH Is taken in many graduate programs at medical and dental schools POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) Can identify the metabolic states of various SURFACE ANATOMY tissues Involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize This technique is particularly useful in structures deeper inside the body. analyzing the brain. For example, the sternum (breastbone) and bulges from the ribs Radiation pinpoints cells that are can be seen and palpated (felt) on the front of the chest metabolically active Health professionals use these structures as anatomical ANATOMICAL ANOMALIES landmarks to identify regions of the heart and points on the chest where certain heart sounds can best be heard. Are physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern. ANATOMICAL IMAGING Can vary in severity from relatively harmless to life-threatening. Uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance PHYSIOLOGY imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of Is the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living internal structures things Anatomical imaging has revolutionized medical science. Often examines systems rather than regions because a particular Anatomical imaging allows medical personnel to look inside the function can involve portions of a system in more than one region body with amazing accuracy and without the trauma and risk of exploratory surgery TWO MAJOR GOALS 1. Examining the body’s responses to stimuli. 2. Examining the body’s maintenance of stable internal conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 1 : THE HUMAN ORGANISM CELL PHYSIOLOGY PATHOLOGY Examines the processes occurring in cells such as energy is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with production from food an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes considers the functions of organ systems. resulting from disease. CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY focuses on the heart and blood vessels focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by NEUROPHYSIOLOGY exercise. focuses on the function of the nervous system. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY The body can be studied at six levels of organization: chemical, CELL LEVEL cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and whole organism. As you Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all move through levels, you will notice that each builds on the living organisms previous level. Combinations of molecules form cells. Structures inside cells called organelles carry out particular functions, such as digestion and movement, for the cell. TISSUE LEVEL. Groups of cells combine to forms tissues. A tissue is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The body is made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. ORGAN LEVEL. Different tissues combine to form organs. An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions. Examples of organs include the urinary bladder, heart, stomach, and lung The simplest level of organization in the human body is the atom. Atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules aggregate into cells Cells form tissues, which combine with other tissues to form organs. Organs work in groups called organ systems. All organ The body’s major organs include the brain, lungs, heart, liver, systems work together to form an organism. pancreas, spleen, stomach, gallbladder, kidneys, large CHEMICAL LEVEL intestine, small intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra. The structural and functional characteristics of all ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL organisms are determined by their chemical makeup Multiple organs combine to form an organ system The chemical level of organization involves how Is a group of organs that together perform a common atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and function or set of functions and are therefore viewed as combine to form molecules. a unit. We consider 11 major organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY ORGANISM LEVEL CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM An organism is any living thing considered as a whole Transports nutrients, waste whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or products, gasses and of trillions of cells, such as a human. hormones throughout the The human organism is the combination of all the organ body. systems. These form a network of systems that are all Plays a pivotal role in the mutually dependent on one another. immune response and the regulation of body ORGAN SYSTEM temperature. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Consists of the heart, blood Provides protection, vessels, and blood. regulates temperature, Your blood is composed of prevents water loss, and your. Red blood cells, white LYMPHATIC SYSTEM help produce, vitamin D blood cells, and platelets Removes foreign Consists of Skin, Hair, substances from the blood Nails, sweat glands and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract. Consists of lymphatic SKELETAL SYSTEM vessels, lymph nodes, and Provides protection and other lymphatic organs support, allows body improvements, produces blood cells, and stores RESPIRATORY SYSTEM minerals and adipose. Exchanges oxygen and carbon Consists of bones, dioxide between the blood and associated cartilages, regulates blood pH. ligaments and joints. Consists of the lungs, and respiratory passages. MUSCULAR SYSTEM Produces body movement, maintains posture, and produces body heat. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Consists of muscles, Performs the mechanical attached to the skeleton and chemical processes of by tendons. digestion, absorption of nutrients, and eliminations of wastes. Consists of the mouth, NERVOUS SYSTEM esophagus, stomach, A major regulatory system intestines, and accessory that detects sensations URINARY SYSTEM organs. Removes waste products and controls movements, from the blood and regulates physiological processes, blood pH, ion balance and and intellectual functions. water balance Consists of the brain, Consists of the kidneys, spinal cord, nerves, and urinary bladder, and ducts sensory receptors. that carry urine. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE other functions. SYSTEM Consists of gland, such as Produces oocytes and is the pituitary gland. That the site of fertilization and secrete hormones. fetal development. Produces milk for the newborn, produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, FEEDBACK LOOPS accessory structures, Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops. ducts, and penis. Allows for a process to be regulated by the outcome. In biological systems, there are two (2) feedback loops; positive CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE and negative feedback. SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK the decrease of a body parameter. (ex: ORGANIZATION body temperature) The specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific POSITIVE FEEDBACK functions. the increase of a body parameter. (ex: child birth) METABOLISM Feedback loops have three (3) components; The ability to use energy and to perform other vital functions. RECEPTORS Monitors the value of a variable by detecting Refers to all the chemical reactions taking place in the cells stimuli. and internal environment of an organism. CONTROL CENTER RESPONSIVENESS Such as part of the brain, that determines the set Organism’s ability to sense changes in its external or internal point for the variable and receives input from the environment and adjust to those changes. receptor about the variable. GROWTH EFFECTOR Refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, that Generates the response that adjusts the value of produces an overall enlargement of all or part of an a changed variable. organism. A changed variable is a stimulus because it DEVELOPMENT initiated a homeostatic mechanism. Includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, NEGATIVE FEEDBACK beginning with fertilization and ending with death. More commonly involved in maintenance of homeostasis than Differentiation involves changes in a cell’s structure and are positive-feedback mechanisms. function a immature generalized state to a matured negative feedback is when any deviation from the set point is specialized state. made smaller or is resisted. In other words the response by the Morphogenesis is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and effector is stopped once the variable returns to its set point entire organ system Feedback loops maintain REPRODUCTION homeostasis, receptors signal the Formation of new cells or new organisms. control center that a variable has Reproduction of cells allows for growth and development. deviated outside its normal range. HOMEOSTASIS The control center regulates the action of the effectors which The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant produces a response that returns the environment within the body. variable to the set point. Changes on our external environmental conditions can result in In negative feedback, the return to changes in our internal body conditions. set point stops the response. Changes in internal body are called variables. Because their value is not constant. To maintain homeostasis the body must actively regulate responses to change in variables. This narrow range referred to as a normal range, homeostatic mechanisms normally maintain body conditions near an ideal POSITIVE FEEDBACK normal value or set point. Positive feedback occurs when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even grater. positive feedback means to “increase” Perfect example for positive feedback is blood clotting. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY ANATOMICAL POSITION CAUDAL Refers to the person standing (erect) with the face directed Cauda / tail forward. Closer to the tail. (Synonymous with inferior) The upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the The navel is caudal to the chin hand facing forward. ANTERIOR A person is supine when lying face upward. Before A person is Prone when lying face downward. The front of the body. The teeth are anterior to the throat. POSTERIOR Posterus / following The back of the body. The brain is posterior to the eyes. VENTRAL Venter, belly To the belly (synonymous with anterior) The navel is ventral to the spine. DORSAL Dorsum, back To the back (synonymous with posterior) The spine is dorsal to the breast bone. PROXIMAL Proximus. Nearest Closer to the point of attachment. The shoulder is proximal to the elbow. DISTAL To be distant Farther Point of attachment The ankle is distal to the hip. LATERAL Latus, side Away from the midline The nipple is lateral to the breastbone. MEDIAL Medial, middle Towards the midline. The bridge of the nose is medial to the eye SUPERFICIAL DIRECTIONAL TERMS Surface Directional terms describes pats of the body relative to each Towards the surface other, The skin is superficial to muscle Right and left are used as directional terms in anatomical DEEP terminology. Superior means above / up Deep Inferior means below / down Away from the surface. (internal) Anterior means “in front of” The lungs are deep to the ribs. Posterior means behind or back RIGHT & LEFT Toward the right side of the body and towards the left side of the body. Right and left ear. SUPERIOR Higher / above A structure above another. The mouth is superior to the chin INFERIOR Lower / below A structure below another. The mouth is superior to the chin CEPHALIC Kephale / head Closer to the head. (synonymous with superior) The chin is cephalic to the navel. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY CELLS Has many ROUGH Cells determine the form and functions of the human body. ribosomes ENDOPLASMIC In cytoplasm The human body is composed of trillions of cells and acts attached; site of RETICULUM protein as a host to countless other organisms. The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. synthesis The simplest organisms consist of single cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. SMOOTH Site of lipid But despite their extremely small size, cells are complex ENDOPLASMIC In cytoplasm synthesis; living structures. Cells have many characteristics in RETICULUM participates in common; however, most cells are also specialized to (SMOOTH ER) detoxification. perform specific functions. Modifies protein GOLGI structure and APPARATUS In cytoplasm packages proteins in secretory vesicles Contains materials SECRETORY In cytoplasm produced in the VESICLES cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis Contains enzymes that LYSOSOME In cytoplasm digest material taken into the cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus CELL STRUCTURE ORGANELLES Breaks down Specialized structures in cells that perform fatty acids, PEROXISOME In cytoplasm specific functions. amino acids, and EXAMPLES hydrogen Nucleus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic peroxide Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Cytoskeleton, Cilia, Flagella, And Site of aerobic Microvilli MITOCHONDRION In cytoplasm respiration and CYTOPLASM the major site of Jelly-like substance that holds organelles ATP synthesis CELL MEMBRANE Supports Also termed the plasma membrane. MICROTUBULE In cytoplasm cytoplasm; A structure that encloses the cytoplasm. assists in cell ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTIONS division and Contains genetic forms material of cell components of (DNA) and cilia and flagella Variable location nucleoli, site of On cell surface Move substances NUCLEUS within cell RNA synthesis with many on each over surfaces of CENTRIOLES and ribosomal cell certain cells. subunit assembly On sperm cell FLAGELLA Propel sperm surface with one cells per cell RIBOSOMES In cytoplasm Site of protein Extensions of cell Increase surface synthesis FLAGELLA surface with many area of certain on each cell cells ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY The number and type of organelles within each cell determine the cell’s specific structure and function. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE Uses beams of electrons to produce an image. Used to see objects much smaller than a cell. FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL CELL METABOLISM Involves chemical reactions that occur within a cell. These metabolic reactions often involve energy transfers. During metabolic reactions, energy is also released as heat which helps maintain body temperature. SYNTHESIS OF MOLECULES The different cells of the body synthesize, or produce, various types of molecules, including, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the types of molecules they produce. COMMUNICATION Cells communicate with each other by using chemical and electrical signals. SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON ELECTRON REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE Most cells contain a complete copy of all the genetic MICROSCOPE MICROSCOPE information (DNA molecules) of the individual. The beam of A beam of As a person grows, cells divide to produce new cells, electrons is electrons is passed each containing the same genetic information. reflected off the through the object Inheritance refers to the transmission of traits from surface of the to be viewed. one generation to the next. Specialized cells called object The specimen must gametes are responsible for the transmission of The depth of focus be embedded in genetic information to the next generation. of SEM is much plastic and thinly TWO TYPES OF MICROSCOPE greater and sectioned. produces a clearer LIGHT MICROSCOPE three-dimensional Use light to produce an image of tissue image. structures. Light microscopy is regularly used to examine biopsy specimens. Because most tissues are colorless and transparent when thinly sectioned. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE Scans the sample using a tiny mechanical probe that can be deflected by small forces between the probe and sample. Generates three-dimensional surface map of the sample. Combines the high resolution of TEM with the topographical visualization of SEM. NOTE THAT! TEM, SEM and AFM DO NOT transmit color FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL information, the micrographs are black and white unless used to describe the cell membrane structure assigned false colors. Composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol PLASMA MEMBRANE with proteins “floating” in the membrane. Plasma membrane is the outermost component of a cell, PHOSPHOLIPIAD FORM A BILAYER as such, serves several important functions. The double layer of phospholipids has a fluid Separating the cytoplasmic, intracellular, substances, quality, meaning that they are not completely those inside the cell, from extracellular substances, those stationary but are able to move. outside the cell. phospholipids contain two regions: POLAR and Enclose and support the cell contents. NONPOLAR It attaches cells to the extracellular environment or to other cells. TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROGRAPH Determines what moves into and out of cell. Showing the plasma membrane of a single cell. Consists primarily of lipids and proteins, with a very small Proteins are either surface of the lipid bilayer stain more amount of carbohydrates. readily more than the lipid bilayer does and give the MEMBRANE POTENTIAL membrane the appearance of having three parts: The Electrical charge difference across the plasma two outer parts consist of proteins and the membrane. phospholipid heads, and the central part is composed of Result of the cell’s regulation of ion movement into the phospholipid tails and cholesterol. and out of the cell. PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURES Combines the high resolution of TEM with the phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is topographical visualization of SEM. hydrophilic LIPIDS AND PROTEINS phospholipid molecule has a non-polar tail region that is Each making up about 45 - 50% of the total in the hydrophobic plasma membrane The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the However, these values can vary depending on the membrane. specific type of cell analyzed. MEMBRANE PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS Makes up a small percentage of the plasma Penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many cases membrane ( 4 - 8%) extending from one surface to the other. Consist of regions made up of amino acids with Found only on the outer surface of the plasma hydrophobic R groups and other regions of amino acids membrane Combine with lipids to form glycolipids and with with hydrophilic R groups. proteins to form glycoproteins. GLYCOCALYX is the collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates on the outer surface of the plasma membrane. Also contains molecules absorbed from the extracellular environment, so there is often no precise boundary between the plasma membrane and the extracellular environment. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY HYDROPHOBIC REGION of the carrier Are located within the hydrophobic part of the proteins; the membrane. carrier proteins HYDROPHILIC REGION then move the Lies at the inner or outer surface of the specific membrane or line channels through the chemical across membrane. the plasma membrane. Moves specific ATP - ions or molecules POWERED across the plasma PUMPS membrane; require ATP molecules to function, Function as binding sites for RECEPTOR chemical signals PROTEINS in the PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS extracellular Are attached to either the inner or the outer surfaces fluid; binding of of the lipid bilayer. chemical signals Some peripheral proteins may be bound to integral to receptors membrane proteins, whereas others are bound to the triggers cellular polar heads of the phospholipid molecule. response Catalyze MEMBRANE PHOTO FUNCTIONS chemical PROTEINS ENZYMES reactions either inside or outside cells MARKER Allows cells to identify other MARKER MOLECULES MOLECULES Are cell surface molecules that allows cells to cells or other molecules. identify other cells or other molecules. They are mostly glycoproteins or glycolipids Examples of marker molecule function include a sperm cell’s recognition of an oocyte and the immune system’s ability to distinguish between self-cells and Anchor cells to foreign cells, such as bacteria or donor cells in an other cells ATTACHMENT organ transplant. (cadherins) or to PROTEINS GLYCOPROTEINS extracellular Proteins with attached carbohydrates molecules The proteins may be either integral or (integrins) peripheral membrane proteins. GLYCOLIPIDS Lipids with attached carbohydrates. Form passageways ATTACHMENT PROTEINS TRANSPORT through the Are integral proteins that allow cells to attach to PROTEINS plasma membrane, other cells or to extracellular molecules. (CHANNEL allowing specific ions or molecules Many attachment proteins are cadherins and PROTEINS) integrins to enter or exit the cell; may be leak or CADHERINS gated. Are proteins that attach cells to other cells. Move ions or INTEGRINS molecules across Are proteins that attach cells to the plasma extracellular molecules CARRIER membrane; Integrins function in pairs of integral PROTEINS binding of membrane proteins, which interact with (TRANSPORT specific chemical both cytoplasmic and extracellular ERS) to carrier molecules. proteins causes Because of the interaction with changes in the cytoplasmic molecules, integrins also shape function in cellular communication. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY TRANSPORT PROTEINS CHANNEL PROTEINS Are integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to Are one or more integral membrane proteins arranged so move from one side of the plasma membrane to the that they form a tiny channel though the plasma other. membrane. Have three characteristics that are important to their The hydrophobic regions of the proteins face outward function: toward the hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane, and the hydrophilic regions of the protein face inward and line the channel. Ions or small molecules of the right size, charge, and SPECIFICITY shape can pass through the channel. Means that each The charges in the hydrophilic part of the channel transport protein proteins determines which types of ions can pass through bind to and the channel. transports only a certain type of molecule or ion. For example, the transport protein that moves glucose does not move amino acids. The chemical structure of the binding site determines the specificity of the transport protein because only substances that are the right shape can bind to the protein. COMPETITION Is the result of molecules with similar shape LEAK ION CHANNELS binding to the Also known as nongated ion channel. transport protein. Are always open and are responsible for the plasma Although the membrane’s permeability to ions when the plasma binding sites of membrane is at rest. transport proteins GATED ION CHANNELS exhibit specificity, The substances in the greater Open and close depending on certain conditions of closely related concentration or the the cell. substances that substance that binds to the Some gated ion channels open or close in response have the same binding site more readily is to chemical signals binding to the ion channel. shape may bind to moved across the plasma LIGAND the same binding membrane at the greater is a generic term for any chemical signal site. rate. molecule that binds an area of a cell to change the activity of that cell. Ion channels that respond to these signals are called ligand-gated ion channels. Other gated ion channels open or close when that is a change in the membrane potential are called voltage- gated ion channels. CYSTIC FIBROSIS Is a genetic disorder that affects chloride ion channels. The failure of these ion channels to function causes the affected cells to produce thick, viscous secretions. STURATION Although cystic fibrosis affects many cell types, its Means that the rate of movement of most profound effects are in the pancreas and the molecules across the membrane is limited lungs. by the number of available transport proteins. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY TRANSPORT PROTEINS CHANNEL PROTEINS Are integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to Are one or more integral membrane proteins arranged so move from one side of the plasma membrane to the that they form a tiny channel though the plasma other. membrane. Have three characteristics that are important to their The hydrophobic regions of the proteins face outward function: toward the hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane, and the hydrophilic regions of the protein face inward and line the channel. Ions or small molecules of the right size, charge, and SPECIFICITY shape can pass through the channel. Means that each The charges in the hydrophilic part of the channel transport protein proteins determines which types of ions can pass through bind to and the channel. transports only a certain type of molecule or ion. For example, the transport protein that moves glucose does not move amino acids. The chemical structure of the binding site determines the specificity of the transport protein because only substances that are the right shape can bind to the protein. COMPETITION Is the result of molecules with similar shape LEAK ION CHANNELS binding to the Also known as nongated ion channel. transport protein. Are always open and are responsible for the plasma Although the membrane’s permeability to ions when the plasma binding sites of membrane is at rest. transport proteins GATED ION CHANNELS exhibit specificity, The substances in the greater Open and close depending on certain conditions of closely related concentration or the the cell. substances that substance that binds to the Some gated ion channels open or close in response have the same binding site more readily is to chemical signals binding to the ion channel. shape may bind to moved across the plasma LIGAND the same binding membrane at the greater is a generic term for any chemical signal site. rate. molecule that binds an area of a cell to change the activity of that cell. Ion channels that respond to these signals are called ligand-gated ion channels. Other gated ion channels open or close when that is a change in the membrane potential are called voltage- gated ion channels. CYSTIC FIBROSIS Is a genetic disorder that affects chloride ion channels. The failure of these ion channels to function causes the affected cells to produce thick, viscous secretions. STURATION Although cystic fibrosis affects many cell types, its Means that the rate of movement of most profound effects are in the pancreas and the molecules across the membrane is limited lungs. by the number of available transport proteins. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY IN THE PANCREAS The thick secretions block the release of digestive enzymes, resulting in an inability to digest certain types of food and sometimes leading to serious cases of pancreatitis ( inflammation of the pancreas ). IN THE LUNGS The thick secretion block airways and make breathing difficult. CARRIERE PROTEINS Or transports, are integral membrane proteins that moves ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. CLASSIFIED IN THREE WAYS UNIPORT Is the movement of one specific ion or molecule across the membrane. SYMPORT (COTANSPORT) Is the movement of two different ions or molecules in the same direction across the plasma membrane. ANTIPORT (COUNTERTRANSPORT) Is the movement of two different ions or molecules in opposite directions across the plasma membrane. ATP - POWERED PUMPS Are transport proteins that require cellular energy to move specific ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. Is fueled by the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Energy stored in ATP molecules is used to power many cellular activities. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY RECEPTORS PROTEINS Are membrane proteins or glycoproteins that have an exposed receptor site on the outer cell surface. Specific substances, such as chemical signals, can attach to the receptor site. Cells commonly use receptors and the chemical signals they bind as part of an intercellular communication system that coordinates activities among the various parts of the body. One cell can release a chemical signal that diffuse to another cell and binds to its receptor. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY RECEPTORS COUPLES TO G PROTEIN COMPLEXES MOVEMENT THROUGH THE G PROTEIN COMPLEX PLASMA MEMBRANE Located on the inner surface of the plasma Separates extracellular material from the cytoplasm membrane. and is selectively permeable that is, it allows only Acts as an intermediary between a receptor and other certain substance to pass through it. cellular proteins. The cytoplasm has a different composition than the Consist of three proteins: alpha, beta and gamma extracellular material, and the cell’s survival depends proteins. on the maintenance of these differences. Molecules and ions can move across the plasma membrane in different ways depending on the chemical characteristics of the molecules and ions and the structures and functions of the cell. DIFFUSION Net movement from areas of higher to lower concentration Substances transported: Lipid - soluble molecules Example are Oxygen, CO2, and lipids. OSMOSIS Water diffuses across a selectively permeable membrane Substances transported: water Example are water movement from the intestine into blood. FACILATED DIFFUSION Carrier proteins move substances across the plasma membrane without ATP. Substances transported: some substances too large to pass through membrane channels; ions and small molecules diffuse through membrane channels Example are Glucose movement into muscle cells and adipocytes. ENZYMES Catalyze chemical reactions on either the inner or ACTIVE TRANSPORT the outer surface of the plasma membrane ATP-powered pumps bind to substances and move them across the plasma membrane Substances transported: Substances accumulates in concentrations higher on one side the membrane that on the other are transported. Example are ions, such as NA+, K+, and CA2+, are actively transported. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT Ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active transport which establishes an ion concentration. Substances transported: Sugar, amino acids and ions Example are glucose transport into intestinal epithelial cell using Na+ concentration gradient. ENDOCYTOSIS Vesicles are taken into the cell, requiring ATP in receptor mediated endocytosis Substances transported: Phagocytosis takes in cells and solid particles. Pinocytosis takes in molecules dissolved Example are immune system cell ingest bacteria and cellular debris; most cells take in substances through pinocytosis. EXOCYTOSIS Secretory vesicle that fuse with the plasma membrane and release contents to the outside of the cell. Requires ATP. Substances transported: Proteins and other water soluble molecules are transported out of the cell. THREE OSMOTIC PRESSURE Example are digestive enzymes, hormones, ISOSTOMIC neurotransmitters. The solutions are isosmotic even though the types of solute particles in the two solutions differ from each PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT other. Membrane transport mechanisms are classified as HYPEROSMOTIC either passive or active based on whether or not the More dilute the solution, the more dilute the solution cell expends metabolic energy. with lower osmotic pressure. During passive transport the cell does not expend metabolic energy. HYPOSMOTIC More concentrated collusion. Active membrane requires the cell to expend metabolic energy. THREE TENDENCY OF CELLS TO SHRINK ISOTONIC DIFFUSION The shape of the cell remains constant, maintaining its The movement of solutes from an area of internal tension or tone. higher concentration to an area of lower HYPERTENSION concentration. Tonicity is when the cell is placed into a solution water Diffusion results from the constant random moves out of the cell by osmosis causes the cell to motion of all atoms, molecules or ins in shrink. solutions. HYPOTONIC Concentration difference between two points Causing the cell to swell and burst, divided by the distance between the two points is called concentration gradient. OSMOSIS The diffusion of water (solvent) across a selective permeable membrane, such as the plasma membrane. Selectively permeable means that the membrane allows water but not all the solutes dissolve in the water to diffuse through it, Kidneys have aquaporins or water channel proteins that open and close to adjust membrane permeability to water. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY FACILATED DIFFUSION SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT Mediated transport process that moves substances Involves the active transport of an ion, such as Na+ out into or out of cells from a higher to a lower of a cell. concentration. With a higher concentration of the ions outside of the Carrier proteins and channel proteins carry out cell, the tendency of ions to move back to the cell, facilitate diffusion. provides the energy needed to move a different ion. Facilitated diffusion does not require metabolic energy to transport substances across the plasma membrane. VESICULAR TRANSPORT Is the movement of larger volumes of substances across the plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles, membrane - bound sacs. Requires energy in the form of ATP and therefore is an active membrane transport process. ENDOCYTOSIS Occurs when materials moves through the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm by the formation of a vesicle. Process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the plasma membrane, and bringing it to the cell. ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT Mediates transport process that requires energy provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Movement of the transported substances to the opposite side of the membrane and its subsequent release from the ATP-powered pump are fueled by the breakdown of ATP. Active transport is important because it can move substances against their concentration PHAGOCYTOSIS Active transport can also move substance from higher Which means “cell eating”, solid particles are to lower concentrations. ingested and phagocytic vesicles are formed. Phagocytosis is important in eliminating harmful substances from the body. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY PINOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS Meaning “cell drinking” is distinguished from The vesicle containing the substance moves through phagocytosis in that smaller vesicles from, and they the cytoplasm to the opposite side of the cell. There contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than the substance is related from the cell through particles. exocytosis. Pinocytosis often forms vesicles near the dips of The transport and fusion of secretory vesicles with deep invaginations of the plasma membrane. the plasma membrane and the extracellular space. It is a common transport phenomenon in variety of cell types, occurring in certain cells of the kidneys, epithelial cells of the intestines, cells of the liver, and cells that line capillaries. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS The plasma membrane may contain specific receptor molecules that recognize certain substances and allow them to be transported into the cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis. SECRETORY VESICLE Membrane bound sacs that carry substances from the golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane, where contents of the vesicles are released The transport and fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and the extracellular space. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY PINOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS Meaning “cell drinking” is distinguished from The vesicle containing the substance moves through phagocytosis in that smaller vesicles from, and they the cytoplasm to the opposite side of the cell. There contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than the substance is related from the cell through particles. exocytosis. Pinocytosis often forms vesicles near the dips of The transport and fusion of secretory vesicles with deep invaginations of the plasma membrane. the plasma membrane and the extracellular space. It is a common transport phenomenon in variety of cell types, occurring in certain cells of the kidneys, epithelial cells of the intestines, cells of the liver, and cells that line capillaries. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS The plasma membrane may contain specific receptor molecules that recognize certain substances and allow them to be transported into the cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis. SECRETORY VESICLE Membrane bound sacs that carry substances from the golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane, where contents of the vesicles are released The transport and fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane and the extracellular space. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC IV IMPORTANT NOTED CHAPTER 3: CELL BIOLOGY GENE GENETIC CODE Functional units of heredity. The genetic is the information contained in mRNA and it Heredity is the transmission of genetic traits from relates the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to the amino parent to offspring. acid sequence of a protein, the mRNA is organized into three nucleotide sequence called codons. Each gene is a segment of a DNA molecule that specifies the structure of an RNA molecule. The production of RNA and proteins from the information stored in DNA is called gene expression. TRANSLATION The synthesis of a protein at the ribosome based on the sequence of the codons of mRNA. In addition to mRNA translation requires ribosomes and tRNA. Ribosomes consisting of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. The tRNA called the anticodon consists of three nucleotides and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA on the basis of the pairing relationships between nucleotides. TRANSCRIPTION Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. During transcription the DNA and the gene is used as a “template” to make a messenger RNA strand with the enzyme called RNA polymerase. DNA to mRNA process. Synthesis of mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION The proteins associated with DNA in the nucleus play a role in regulating transcription. Part of the DNA is no longer transcribed, whereas other segments of DNA become more active. ROBLES BSN 1-C 1ST YEAR  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I CHAPTER 1 I THE HUMAN ORGANISM BSN 1- C I UNIVERSITY OF SAN AGUSTIN I A.Y. 2024 - 2025 I 1ST SEMESTER ISABILLE NICOLE V. ROBLES MAIN TOPIC SUB TOPIC I SUB TOPIC II SUB TOPIC III SUB TOPIC